Sumo

Murangariro wehwirudzuro yokutonga unoita basa rinokosha mukushanda kwenzanga yedemocracy. Inoshanda senzvero pamasimba emitemo nevakuru vakuru, ichivimbisa kuti mitemo nemirairo zvinowirirana neBumbiro remitemo. Kupfurikidza nokupa simba matare kuti azivise zviito zvisina wirirano, hwirudzuro yedare inoumba miganhu yehurumende nekodzero dzinokosha. Nepo midzi yayo iri muAmerican jurisprudence, nheyo yakapesvedzera miitiro yemitemo munyika yose. Nyaya ino inonzvera mavambo, miitiro, uye migumisiro inosakurira kuhwirudzura kwedare pamusoro pomuitiro wavose, kunzvera nhau dzedare, zvinyorwa zvenguva inoteverwa, uye zvinyorwa zvenguva yemberi.

Kunzwisisa Kuhwirudzura Kutonga

Kuhwirudzura dare isimba rokunzvera kana mutemo uri mukuwirirana neBumbiro remitemo. Iyi nheyo inobvumira vatongi kushatisa mutemo kana kuti zviito zvavakuru vakuru zvinorangarirwa kuva zvisina murairo. Inosimbisa mutongi sebazu rehurumende rakaenzana, rinokwanisa kunzvera mamwe mapazu maviri.

Mavambo: Marbury v. Madison

Dzidziso yehwirudzuro yedare muUnited States yakabva panhau yechiratidzo [FLT] Marbury v. Madison [1803]. Kunyora nokuda kweDare Gurusa, Mutongi John Marshall akataura kuti "ndiro reruwa uye basa resangano redare rokutonga kutaura kuti mutemo uripi. Iyi mhaka yakagadza chiremera chematare ehurumende kuputsa mabasa eBumbiro-mitemo, kunyange zvazvo shoko rokuti "hwirudzuro" risingaoneki muBumbiro remitemo rimene. Chisarunganiso chamato yezvamatongerwe enyika pakati paAdhama anobva nokudzorwa kweJensmorson, asi inhau yayo inogara iri nheyo youkuru hwebumbiro remitemo.

Kushanda Kunoita Kuongorora Kutonga

Kuhwirudzura dare kunoshanda mumhaka dzakasimba nenharo. Pamupano inodenha mutemo unofanira kuratidzira kukuvara kwomunhu oga kwakananga kunoparirwa nechinofungidzirwa kuva chiito chisina pamutemo. Matare ipapo anodudzira Bumbiro remitemo nemirau yakafanira kusarudza kana mutemo uripo unopfuura chiremera chehurumende kana kuti kudzongonyedza kodzero dzakadzivirirwa. Matare eZasi anoshandisa hwirudzuro yedare zuva nezuva, asi Dare Gurusa reU. Muitiro wacho unotsamira pamitemo yakarongwa, muenzaniso (apo unonzi decis), uye kuomerera kududzira nzira dzokutonga nadzo dzakadzivirirwa sedzero dzapakuvamba, manyoro, kana kuti magariro emitemo.

Kukosha Kwokuhwirudzura Mumutemo Wavose

Kuhwirudzura dare kunokosha nokuda kwokuchengeta mutemo nokudzivirira maruramiro omunhu oga. Kunobatira mabasa akawanda mukuumba muitiro wavose:

Kudzivirirwa Kwekodzero Dzevanhu

Matare anova nechokwadi chokuti kodzero dzevanhu dzinobatanidzwa muBhishopi yekodzero dzavanhu uye kugadziriswa kwadzinozoitwa hazvishorwi nezviito zvehurumende. Pasina kuongorora kwokutonga, vanhu vashomanene vasingafarirwi mune zvematongerwe enyika vangagona kubviswa rusununguko rwavo nomutemo woruzhinji. Somuenzaniso, zvisarudzo zveDare Rapamusorosoro zvinodzivirira kutaura kwakasununguka, rusununguko rwechitendero, uye muitiro wakafanira zvakaumba mitemo yakabva munhimbe yokutsigira kubuda munyika.

Makeja Nedzikamo

Kuhwirudzura dare kunodzivisa bazu rimwe rehurumende kuva rine simba zvikuru. Kupfurikidza nokusashandisa mirairo yavakuru vakuru kana kuti mitemo inopfuudza ganhuriro dzebumbiro remitemo, dare rinochengeta kuparadzana kwamasimba. Seel Seizel [ [1952] (2) rakaratidzira iyi nzvero apo Dare rakavhara Purezidhendi Truman kuedza kuba zvigadziko zvesimbi mukati meHondo yeKorea, kusimbisa kuti chiito chapamusoro chinofanira kuva nebumbiro remitemo kana kuti remitemo.

Kusimudzira Kururamisira Nokuenzana

Kuhwirudzura dare kunotsigira ruramisiro kupfurikidza nokududzira mitemo mukuwirirana nenheyo dzebumbiro remitemo. Inobatira semotokari yefambiro mberi yenzanga, kururamisa kusaruramisira uko matare okugadza pamutemo anganonoka kutaura. Basa reDare mukufambisira mberi maruramiro avagari vemo(kubva pakugumisa kutsauranisa vanhu kusvikira kukuziva kuva nomwero weroorano ($ichiisa ganhuriro yedare inogona kuchinja sei mutemo wekatalyze apo mapazu ezvamatongerwe enyika anokundikana kuita chiito.

Kuhwirudzura Kunoita Vatongi: Mhaka Dzinoitika Mumugwagwa Dzinokanganisa Muitiro

Zvisarudzo zvinoverengeka zveDare Rapamusoro Zvinoratidzira simba guru rokuhwirudzurwa kwomuitiro wokutonga panharaunda dzakasiyana - siyana.

Kodzero Dzevagari Vomunyika Nerusarurano

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) yakazivisa paradzano yedzinza muzvikoro zvavose isina kubatana, kuputsa "kupesana asi kwakaenzana" dzidziso ye Pnegry v. Ferguson. Iyi mhedziso haisati ichingova bedzi mitemo yetsika yetsika yakashatiswa asi yakagadzawo mwero wekodzero dzehurumende yekodzero dzevagari vemo nemitemo yehurumende yakatevera yakafanana neChibvumirano cheChibvumirano cheChiviga che 1964. Chibvumirano chinohwirudzurano pano chakananga dzidzo nemiraudzo yenzanga.

Kodzero Dzokuberekana uye Kutarisira Utano

.Roe v. Wade [773] yakasimbisa maruramiro omutemo omukadzi okusarudza kubvisa pamuviri pasi peChiteshi cheChibvumirano chaNit Clause cheMitemo ye 144. Chisarudzo chacho chakadzika mitemo inoganhurira yehurumende ndokutanga gadziriro yokutungamirira kubvisa mimba yakavakirwa pamicheto. Nepo gare gare gare yakachinjwa [[FLT:]] Plantive Parents v. Casey[FLT] [FLT] [3] [8] (8]) uye kuputswa ne [[FLT] V. Jackson’S Organization yoUtano rweVakadzi [[FLT:]]] [202], chinoitika chinoenzanisira kuti kumuka kwakakomba kukurukurirana kwapachena zvikuru nokutyaira nokutya kwechamute wedhiro.

LGBTQ+ Kodzero Nekuenzana Kweroorano

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) nyoresa roorano yevatano yokwanyina munyika yose, achitonga kuti maruramiro makuru okuroora anoshanda kuvaroorani vane mitezo yevatano imwe cheteyo pasi pazvose zviri zviviri Cendrome and Enciclement Classies. Chisarudzo chinodikanwa kupa marezereji eroorano kuvaroorani vane mitezo mimwe cheteyo yevatano uye kuziva roorano dzinoitwa mune dzimwe nyika. Chino chinoratidzira kuti hwirudzuro yedare inogona sei kuparira mubatanidzwa worudzi panhau dzinoparadzanisa zvikuru.

Kuchinja Kwemhoteredzo Nokudzikamisa Kwemamiriro Okunze

Mu Massachusetts v. EPA (2007), Dare Rapamusoro rakaramba kuti Ceather Air Act rinobvumira Environmental Protection Agency kudzora kubudiswa kwegasi remota. Chisarudzo chakasimbisa kumira kwehurumende kukwidza hurumende yehurumende uye kuwedzera mupimo wezvakapoteredza. Nguva pfupi yapfuura, West Virginia v. EPA[FLT:] (202) yakamisa mano ezvirongwa zvokubudisa tsvina pasi pe "mageom, kuratidzira munzveroo.Prometoote yedare.

Kutarisira Utano Nechiito Chokutarisira Chisingatani Kushatiswa

Mu National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012), Dare Gurusa rakatsigira murairo womunhu oga weAffordicable Care Act sechibvumirano chapamutemo chesimba reHurumende rokubhadharisa, nepo richiganhurira kukura kweMedicaid mumashoko anotengwa. Uku kutonga kwakachengeta muitiro mukuru wezvoutano hwehurumende asi kwakadzvinyirirawo kuitwa kwahwo. Mhaka yacho inoenzanisira kuti kunzvera kwokutonga kunogona sei kuumba nhevedzano yetsika dzavose pasina kuishayisa basa zvizere.

Kuongorora Kutonga Nokuwedzera Kunoita Mitemo Inotongwa Nevanhu Vose

Kunze kwemitemo isingateereri, kuongorora kwokutonga kunopesvedzera kukura kwomuitiro wehurumende kupfurikidza nemiitiro inoverengeka.

Kuronga Zvisarudzo

Zvisarudzo zveDare rapamusoro zvikurusa zvakagadza zvisarudzo zvinobatanidza zvisaririra zvemitemo yomunguva yemberi nechiito chavakuru vakuru. Vagadziri vemitemo vanofanira kuronga mitemo inowirirana nemipimo yebumbiro-mitemo inoumbwa neDare. Somuenzaniso, pashure pokunge Dare ratanga kunzvera kwakakomba nokuda kwemapoka edzinza mu Grauted v. Bollinger [2003], mayunivhesiti akagadzira zvirongwa zvokubvuma kuti zviitwe mupimo iwoyo kutozosvikira Sangano dzemagariro dzedzinza rainzi Faircless v.[FLT:] [2] [2003]] [2002]) zvinobudirira (2012])

Chinjo Inokurudzira Yemitemo

Matare anowanzosunda vaiti vemitemo kushandura kana kuti kubvisa mitemo yehurumende. Kusashanda kwedare kunoparira mukaha uyo masangano anotonga angazadza nemiitiro mitsva inowirirana nezvinodikanwa zvebumbiro-mitemo. Pashure pokunge Dare raparadza zvikamu zveChibvumirano cheKofimbishi mu Shelby County v. Hoker[ [202013], Congress yakakundikana kuvandudza nzira yokubhadharira nayo, zvichitungamirira kukukura kweganhuriro dzehurumende itsva dzokuvhotera.

Kuvhiringidza Nharo Yavose

Kutonga kwedare kunogona kuchinja murangariro wavose ndokupesvedzera hurukuro yezvamatongerwe enyika. Nhau dzakakwirira dzakafanana ne Citifigens United v. FEC (2010) kurukurirano dzakapfuudzwa pamusoro pemari yenhimbe dzinopfuurira kukarakadza zvikarakadzo zvemiitiro. Zvisarudzo zveDare kazhinji kazhinji zvinobatira senzvimbo dzapakati dzemasangano enzanga, zvimwe kupa simba vatsigiri kana kuti chishoro chinoparira.

Mirangariro Yokuenzanisa: Kuhwirudzura Mune Dzimwe Nyika

Nepo hwirudzuro yokutonga yakabatanidzwa zvikurusa neUnited States, mamwe marudzi akawanda akagamuchira zvimiro zvenheyo yacho.

Muenzaniso weEurope: Dare Romutemo

Nyika dzakafanana neGermany, France, uye Italy dzine matare makuru ebumbiro remitemo ayo anoshandisa hwirudzuro isina mufungo(mitemo inoisa muganhu usati waitika. Dare reGerman Federal Constitutional Court, somuenzaniso, rinogona kunzwa kunyunyuta kwebumbiro remitemo kunobva kuvanhu vamwe navamwe uye rakaumba miitiro pamusoro pechivande, dziviriro yemashoko, uye maruramiro makuru. Uyu muenzaniso unosiana negadziriro yeAmerica yakadzikama uko dare ripi neripi rinogona kuita muhwirudzuro yorutongeso.

Mitemo Inozivikanwa Nevanhu Vose: United Kingdom neCanada

United Kingdom, isina bumbiro remitemo rakanyorwa mupfungwa yeAmerica, rine chimiro chakaneta zvikuru chehwirudzuro. MuChitemo cheHuman Rights 1998, matare anogona kubudisa ziviso dzokusawirirana kana mutemo ukaputsa kodzero dzeEurope Convention, asi Paramende haidikanirwi kururamisa mutemo. Charter of Rights and Freedom yeCanada (19982) inobatanidza "chikamu chapamutemo chakasimba" chinobvumira matare okutonga kukurira nhambo dzemakore mashanu, kudzikamisa kurukurirano yedare nouchangamire hwedemocracy.

Mitemo Mitsva Nokurevererwa Kwebumbiro remitemo

Vatsigiri vazhinji vepashure pemitemo yehurumende dzinosarudzwa navanhu nokuchinja hurumende dzinosarudzwa navanhu, dzakadai seSouth Africa neIndia, vakatanga matare akasimba ebumbiro remitemo. Dare reMitemo reSouth Africa rakaita basa guru mukubvisa mitemo yesarura ganda uye kuumba mutemo wavose pashure pa19994. Dare repamusorosoro reIndia rakakudziridza dzidziso ye "masangano ehurumende" kuhwirudzura kugadziridza tsinhirano yebumbiro-mitemo, kubvisa kuderera kwemitezo yetsika.

Zvinetso Netsoropodzo Dzokuhwirudzura

Pasinei zvapo noukoshi hwayo, hwirudzuro yokutonga inotarisana nezvinetso zvinoverengeka nenhau.

Chinetso Chokurwisana NaMajorita

Kutsoropodza kukuru kwehwirudzuro yedare ndekwokuti inobvumira vatongi vasina kusarudzwa kukurira mitemo inogadzwa nehurumende. Iyi "chinetso chehurumende" inomutsa mibvunzo pamusoro pekuzvidzora kwapamutemo nekutonga. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti vatongi vanofanira kuzviisa pasi pamisangano yemitemo panhau kutoti pane kuputswa kwakajeka kwemitemo. Vatsigiri vanopesana kuti Bumbiro reMitemo rakagadzirirwa kudzivirira kodzero dzevoruzhinji vatsoropodzwa, vachiita kuti hwirudzuro yedare ive inokosha.

Dzvinyiriro Yezvamatongerwe Enyika Nokuzvimirira Kwokutonga

Matare angatarisana nedzvinyiriro yezvamatongerwe enyika inobva kumasangano asingabvumirani nezvisarudzo zvavo. Muitiro wokusimbisa wavatongi vomubatanidzwa wazova mutsigiri unowedzera, uye tyisidziro dzokupa dare njodzi (kuwedzera ruramisiro yakawanda kuchinja dzikamo yepfungwa) panhambo nenhambo. Kuvimba kwavanhu mudare rejaji kunogona kuderera apo zvisarudzo zvinowirirana nemitsetse yemibatanidzwa.

Mafungiro Evanhu uye Kururamisira

Panenge papiwa mutongo unomutsa nharo, nyaya dzinotongwa nevanhu vakawanda dzinoita kuti vanhu vasarudze kutsigira mutemo.

Kutonga Kunopesana.

Gakava rinopfuurira pamusoro pebasa rakafanira ravatongi(* kana vachifanira kugadzira muitiro wokushingaira kana kuti kushandisa ganhuriro dzemirangariro yehwirudzuro. "Acticist" mirau inoputsa mitemo yakavakirwa padudziro dzinoshandurwa necherekedzo, nepo "kudzorwa" kusvika kunononokerwa kumira kumira pamitemo kungakundikana kudzivirira maruramiro nenzira inobudirira.

Kukwanisa Kutonga Zvisina Kutsarukana

Vatongi havana simba rechikwama kana kuti munondo. Kushandiswa kwezvisarudzo zvedare kunotsamira pabatira pamwe yehurumende nemitemo. Mirairo yeparamende mu Brown v. Board inodikanwa makore okuchengetwa kwehurumende, uye dzimwe hurumende dzomunzvimbomo dzakadzivisa kwamakumi amakore. Uku kuganhurirwa kunoreva hwirudzuro yedare yoga haigoni kuvimbisa chinjo yomuitiro.

Nguva Yemberi Yokuhwirudzura Mukuita Kuti Muitiro Wavose Ushaye Simba

Sezvo chaunga chinochinja, basa rehwirudzuro yokutonga richapfuurira kuchinjira kudenho dzinobuda.

Kufambira Mberi Kwezvigadzirwa uye Kuva Woga

Matare achada kugadzirisa nyaya dzine chokuita nokuvandika kwemakombiyuta, kutapurwa kwemakombiyuta, uye uchenjeri hwokugadzira. Zvisarudzo zveDare Gurusa mu Riley v. California (2014 na] Carpitart v. United States [2018]) Kudzivirira kweGadziromende reChina kuserura nemibatanidzwa yenzvimbo yemaseropu yemasero, dare rinoisa mutemo. Zvisarudzo zvenguva yemberi zvichabatanidza kuongorora, kuita miraunzi yemitemo, uye kuunganidza mashoko nemakambani ehurumende.

Masangano Okururamisira Munzanga Nokuenzana

Masangano anopfuurira nokuda kweruramisiro yedzinza, kuenzana kwevatano, uye maruramiro ezvemari achadenha mitemo iripo nemirairo. Kuumbwa nemitoo yokududzira zvedare kuchasarudza kana fambiro mberi dzedare kana kuti kudzokororwa kwemitemo kunodzongonyedza. Nhau dzakadai sourudzi, kodzero dzokuvhota, uye kusaenzana kwepfuma zvingauya pamberi pematare.

Mitemo Yemhoteredzo Nechinjo Yemamiriro Okunze

Hondo dzapamutemo pamusoro pechinjo dzemisi yemamiriro okunze dzichaumba nhau dzehwirudzuro yomunguva yemberi. Mibvunzo pamusoro pokumira, ukuru hwechiremera chebumbiro remitemo, uye kushandiswa kwedzidziso dzebumbiro remitemo sedzidziso yavose zvichaedza basa redare mukutonga mhoteredzo. Zvisarudzo zveDare pamusoro pesimba rehurumende (dzidziso yechevron, zvino yakachinjwa) zvichatapura mashandisirwe emirau yemhoteredzo.

Kudyidzana Kwenyika Dzakawanda uye Mutemo Wenyika Dzose

Magakava pamusoro pokushandiswa kwemanyuko emitemo okumwe mukududzira mutemo, kuchengetwa kwemitemo yekodzero dzevanhu munyika yose, uye kudzikamiswa kwekodzero dzenyika yose kuchapesvedzera kuongorora kwokutonga.

Ruzivo Rwokugadzira Zvinhu Nomutemo Wokusanzwisisa

Sezvo nzvimbo dzinobudisa nhau dzinobudisa nhau dzinova chinhu chinokosha kuhurukuro yavose, matare achataura miganhu yemitemo yenyika yokubvisa mashoko, kuisa mashoko mukatikati, uye kuisa mitemo yemitemo panzvimbo yazvo.

mhedziso

Kuhwirudzura dare kunoramba kuri rutivi rukuru rwegadziriro yapamutemo yeAmerica uye kupesvedzera nenzira inowedzera hurumende dzinosarudzwa nehurumende munyika yose. Kupfurikidza nokunzvera mitemo nehurumende inodzorwa, kudzivirira maruramiro avanhu vamwe navamwe, uye kugadza mienzaniso inotungamirira mirau yomunguva yemberi, vatongi vanoita basa rinokosha mukuumba muitiro wavanhu. Nhau dzinobva Brown v. Board ku [FLT]] [FLT]] ku Obergefell v. Hodges inoratidzira zvose zviri zviviri simba negakavaro muhwirudzura. Sangano dzazvinofambira mberi, matare matsva, acharamba achitsanangura miganhuro yemitemo yemitemo yemitemo uye yedare ringaramba kuhwirungamira kuhwirurira kupfurikidza nokurangarira mutemo wehurumende.