Cornestone of Justice: Rusununguko Rwokutonga Nebasa Rarwo muInternational Human Rights

Kuzvimirira mukutonga kunozivikanwa zvikuru senheyo ine nheyo yakavakirwa pakutonga kwomutemo uye mugariro uri madikanwa nokuda kwedziviriro yamaruramiro avanhu. Kunopa simba matare kubvumirano nokududzira mitemo isina vhiringidzo yokunze, kuvimbisa kuti zvisarudzo zvakavakirwa chose chose parunako rwapamutemo noufakazi hwechokwadi. Iyi rusununguko haisiwo zvayo pfungwa asi dziviriro inoshanda inoita kuti mutongi agone kunzvera mukuru mukuru, achengete hurumende dzine mhaka, uye akudziridza mipimo yemitemo yapamutemo inoumba mirangariro yamarudzi ose yavanhu. Pasina matare ekodzero dzavanhu anozvimirira. Pasina matare ose anodzivirira avanhu anozvimirira. Nhungadzoro dzose dzomunzvimbomo kumatare enyika yose anotongwa kumatare enyika yose.

Kunzwisisa Kuzvimirira Kwokutonga: Tsananguro Nezvinhu

Papfundo guru razvo, kuzvimirira kwokutonga kunoreva kuti vatongi vakasununguka kusarudza nhau maererano nedudziro yavo vamene yomutemo namaidi, pasina dzvinyiriro inobva kunzvimbo ipi neipi yokunze. Ikoku kunobatanidza kuzvimirira kubva kumapazu emitemo nevakuru vakuru, kubva kumapati ezvamatongerwe enyika, kubva mufariro dzemari, uye kubva mumurangariro wakakurumbira. Murangariro une zvose zviri zviviri mativi esangano neakasiana. Semitendishoni inofanira kuva yakaparadzana mukuwirirana uye ine ganhuriro yayo paidzo. Pamunhu mumwe nomumwe, vatongi vanofanira kufarikanya chengeteko yegumi, chengeteko yemari, uye rusununguko rwokusasarura kana kuti chirango chakavakirwa pazviri mukati pamutemo zvavo.

Zvinhu zvinokosha zvokuzvimirira kwokutonga zvinosanganisira:

  • [ Utsanana hwechakanaka : Vatongi havagoni kubviswa pasina chikonzero, icho chinodzivisa hurumende kuranga vatongi nokuda kwezvisarudzo zvisingafarirwi.
  • kuzvimirira mune zvemari : Mubhadharo wakakwana nounosagona kubhadharwa unodzivirira vatongi pakumanikidza kwemari.
  • [[FOLT:0] Utongi : Vatongi vanodzora nhau dzavo vamene, kubatanidza mugove wenhau, kutungamirira dare, uye kuranga.
  • Kusarura[: Vatongi vanofanira kurangarirwa savakadaro, vachida mitemo yakajeka pamufambiro wakaipa uye wetsika.
  • Kudzivirirwa papesvedzero yokunze: Hapana chiremera chokunze( hurumende, bhizimisi, kana kuti bhizimisi) kungaraira miuyo yokutonga.

Idzi nheyo dzinobatanidzwa muzvishandiso zvamarudzi akawanda, kubatanidza United Nations Charter, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Convention on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), uye Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judicary inotsigirwa neUN General Assembly. Chibvumirano cheUniversal, somuenzaniso, chinodudza muChikamu 10 kuti munhu ari wose akafanirwa nokururamisira nokutongwa kwapachena nedare rakazvimirira neratiro. Mupimo uyu wakaturiko waverwa nekodzero dzavanhu sokuda matare ekodzero dzavanhu kuti ashande chivhori chibvumirano chinoitwa pasina pamutemo uye pasina kudzorwa kwehurumende kana kuti chidzorerwe.

Kukura Kwenhau Yokuzvimirira Pakutonga Sekodzero Dzevanhu Kunovimbisa

Pfungwa yokuti vatongi vanofanira kuva vakazvimirira inosvika kare kumazana amakore kuMagna Carta, asi chimiro chayo chazvino uno chakatanga munhambo yeNjereso. Vafungi vakafanana naMontesquieu vakatsigira kuparadzana kwamasimba, umo mutongi akazvimirira aizobatira secherekedzo padare remitemo navakuru vakuru. Uyu murangariro wakanyorwa muUnited States Constitution uye gare gare wakashandiswa nehurumende dzinosarudzwa navanhu dzakawanda. Muzana ramakore rechi20, zvinotyisa zvehondo mbiri dzenyika nekodzero dzavanhu zvakapararira zvakanyandura nzanga yemarudzi ose kubatira kuzvimirira kwokutonga sechinodikanwa chokudzivirira kodzero dzavanhu.

Chikamu 14 cheICCPR chinovimbisa zvakajeka kodzero yokutonga kwakarurama pamberi pedare rakazvimirira nerisingasaruri. Dare rekodzero dzevanhu, iro rinotarisira kushanda kweICCPR, rakabudisa tsinhiro dzavose nezvisarudzo zvinojekesa kuti kuzvimirira kunofanira kurangarirwa kwete bedzi mugadziriro dzepamutemo asiwo mukushanda. Somuenzaniso, mu Gwenderal Respolution. [32, Dare rakataura kuti chinodikanwa chokuzvimirira chinonongedzera kunzira umo vatongi vanogadzwa nayo, zvikwaniriso zvavo, zvikwanikiso zvavo, kuchengetedzwa, uye kudzivirirwa kwavo mudzvinyiriro yokunze.

Nguva yapashure peWWII yakavawo nokuumbwa kwematare amarudzi ose nematare, zvakadai seInternational Court of Justice (ICJ), Dare reEurope rekodzero dzavanhu (ECTR), Dare reInternet-American of Human Rights, uye International Criminal Court (ICC). Masangano aya anotsamira zvikuru pakuzvimirira kwevatongi vavo uye pakuda kwematare omudzimba kubatira pamwe. jurisprudence yawo, yakaumbawo, uye yakakudza mirangariro yekodzero dzevanhu munyika yose.

Kuchinja Kunoita Kuzvimirira Kwokutonga Kunoita Kodzero Dzenyika Yose Dzevanhu

Kududzira Zviito Nemagungano Enyika Dzose

Dare renyika yose renyika yose ndiro vaturikiri vakuru vezvibvumirano zvekodzero dzevanhu. Apo dare rinonzvera mhaka inobatanidza gadziriro yechibvumirano . yakadai sokurambidzwa kwechikamu, kodzero yedare rakarurama, kana kuti rusununguko rwokutaura (kurangarira) kazhinji kazhinji kuvamba zvisarudzo izvo zvinopesvedzera kuti mamwe matare negadziriro dzemitemo zvinonzwisisa sei izvozvo zvakarurama. Somuenzaniso, nhau dzeECTHR dzinobata rutongeso dzinoiswa nematare munyika yose. Kududzirwa kwadzo kweChikamu 3 cheEurope Convention on Human Rights (Kutambudzwa kwekodzero dzavanhu) mumhaka dzakafanana ne Ireland. [FLT]] uye [FF:1] .[FFFULD] .[FFF]

Nenzira yakafanana, Dare reInter - America raMaruramiro avanhu rakakudziridza dzidziso pamusoro pemitemo yekanganwiro, kunyangarika kwokumanikidzirwa, uye maruramiro enyika omunzvimbomo ayo akagamuchirwa nematare ehurumende muLatin America nekunze.

Kuita Kuti Hurumende Dzizvidavirire

Rimwe ramabasa akakomba zvikurusa edare rinotonga rakasununguka nderokuita kuti hurumende dzizvidavirire nokuda kwokuputswa kwekodzero dzevanhu. Apo vanhu kana kuti mapoka anounza mhaka dzinotaura zvakaipa zvokuuraya kwapamutemo (kwakadai sokuuraya kwomuraudzo, kusungwa kusati kuri kwapamutemo, kana kuti kudzvinyirirwa kwokusabvumirana kwemitemo) zvikwaniriso zvinofanira kugona kubudisa kutonga mukurwisana nehurumende. Ikoku kunoda kuzvimirira kwete bedzi kubva kumukuru wehurumende asiwo kuvatambi vane simba vapachivande avo vangawirirana nehurumende.

Somuenzaniso, muSouth Africa, pashure pepartheid construct matare emitemo inosarudzwa nemitemo yairangarirwa seyakasununguka ``kurovanya' mitemo yehurumende inoputsa kodzero dzenzanga nenzanga, zvakadai sokugona kuwana dzimba nezvoutano. Mhaka yechiratidzo Hurumende yeRepublic of South Africa v. Grootboom yakatanga musengwa wenyika wokugovera zvitemo zvine mufungo zvedzimba. Mienzaniso yakafanana iripo muIndia, umo Dare rapamusorosoro rakashandisa kuzvimirira kwaro kutungamirira hurumende padziviriro yemhoteredzo, migariro yetorongo, uye utano hwavose.

Zvisinei, matare aya emarudzi akawanda anoda kuzvimirira kuti ashande zvinobudirira. Anofanira kunge asina kupindira mune zvematongerwo enyika nehurumende dzakaasika. Somuenzaniso, ECTHR yave ichitarisana nenhamburiko dzinoitwa nedzimwe nyika kuti ipedze simba rayo kana kuti igadze vatongi vanotsigira zvematongerwo enyika.

Kuronga Zvikamu Zvepamutemo Zvinofambira Mberi Kwemipimo Yenyika Yose

Kutonga kunobatsira kuti matare ane ushingi afungewo saizvozvo.

Rangarira mhindumupindu yekodzero yokuva voga muzera remitemo. Apo Dare reRumisiro reEuropean Union (CJEU) rakabudisa Google Spain v. AEPD naMario Costeja Gonzáleja mutongo muna 2014, kugadza “kwakarurama kukanganwika,” chisarudzo chakabva mumatare nedzimba dzemitemo munyika yose. Kunyange zvazvo kutonga kwacho kwakanga kwakavakirwa pamutemo weEUO dziviriro yemitemo, kurangarira kwakwo kwakachinja kurukurirano munyika dzakadai seUnited States, Japan, neIndia. matare eependeyo angangobatanidzwa mukurukurirano yakadaro yenyika yose nemhaka yokuti haaoni fariro dzenyika; anogona kutaridzika kudzimwe nyika nyika yose sechiremera chokunyengetedza.

Nenzira yakafanana, Dare rapamusoro-soro reUnited States, pasinei zvapo nedenho dzaro rimene kukuzvimirira, rakabudisa mirau yakaumba mutemo wamarudzi ose wekodzero dzavanhu [_pamuenzaniso, pakubviswa kwedzinza mu Brown v. Board of Education[, pamusoro pekuenzana mu [FLT:] [FLT]] Obergefell v. . . Kunyange zvazvo matare azvimiriro anogona kupesvedzera sei kodzero dzavanhu munyika yose.

Zvinetso Zvokuzvitonga Munyika Yose

Pasinei nokuti kuongorora uku kunokosha, kuzvitonga kunoramba kuchingoramba kuchityisidzira.

Kupindira Kwematongerwe Enyika uye Kutyisidzira

Munyika dzakawanda, hurumende dzinodenha zvakananga kuzvimirira kwokutonga kupfurikidza nokurongedza matare navatsigiri vakavimbika, dzichishandisa mitoo yokuranga kuranga kuranga vatongi, kana kuti kukundikana kushandisa mirairo yedare. Hungary nePoland dzakatarisana nemitemo yeEuropean Union nokuputsa miitiro yokuchinja kwokutonga uko kunosekesa kuzvitonga. muTurkey, mazana avatongi akadzingwa pashure pokuedza kwa2016, kubvisa chivimbo chavose. MuVenezuela, kuzvitonga kweDare Rapamusorosoro kwakabvumiranwa apo hurumende yakakudza ukuru hwayo ndokugadza vatongi vanodisa kutsigira zviito zvokutonga izvo zvakaputsa zvisaririra zvehurumende.

Vatongi vanorwisana nevavariro dzine simba vangatarisana nechinetso, tyisidziro, kana kuti masimba masimba vatori venhau navadziviriri vekodzero dzavanhu vakatsikirira nhau dzokupondwa kwavatongi munyika dzakadai sePakistan, Colombia, uye Philippines.

Uori Nokushaya Mutoro

Uori mudare pacharo hunogonawo kuderedza kuzvimirira. Vatongi pavanopiwa chiokomuhomwe kana kuti kupesvedzera migumisiro yokuwana mhindu yomunhu oga kana kuti yezvamatongerwe enyika, gadziriro yose yeruramisiro inorasikirwa nokuvimbwa. Ikoku kunoparira chinetso zvikuru munyika umo kugadza kwokutonga kusingavaki uye umo kusina miitiro inobudirira yokuranga vatongi pasina kudzora muitiro wacho. Kudzikamisa kudikanwa kwokuzvidavirira nokuzvimirira ibasa rakaoma. Madare edare akasimba ane miitiro inonyengera anogona kubetsera, asi ivo vamene vanofanira kudzivirirwa mukudzora kwezvamatongerwe enyika.

Kudzivirirwa Kwakakwana Kwepamutemo Kwevatongi

Mune dzimwe nzvimbo, vatongi havafariri dziviriro dzapamutemo dzakakwana. Vangada zvibvumirano zvenhambo pfupi (panzvimbo poupenyu), mibhadharo yakaderera, kana kuti kubviswa navakuru vakuru pasina chisakiso chaicho. Mudzimwe nyika, matare ehondo kana kuti matare chaiwo anoshanda kunze kwedare rejaji renyikawo zvaro uye anopesvedzerwa zvikuru nemukuru mukuru wehurumende. Uku kusava nesimba kunokuita kuti hurumende dzide kumanikidza vatongi kuti vatevedze.

Kuchinja Kwemari uye Kumanikidza Vanhu

Vatongi vangapesvedzerwawo nezvinodiwa nevanhu kana kuti mafungiro avo. Panyaya dzakakwirira dzinobatanidza makambani kana kuti vanhu vakapfuma, mukana wokupa chiokomuhomwe kana kuti zvimwe zvimiro zvesimba zvisina kufanira uripo. Uyezve, munguva yezvamatongerwe enyika zvisina kubatana, vatongi vanopa miganhu yenharo vangatarisana nenhimbe dzeruzhinji dzokushorwa. Kunyange zvazvo kuzvidavirira kwavose kuchikosha, hakufaniri kudarika tyisidziro kana kuedza kutyisidzira beji.

Kuwedzera KwechiPopulist NechiOritariarianism

Kumuka kwemasangano ehurumende nehurumende inodzorwa pasi pose kunopa tyisidziro yakananga kukuzvimirira kwokutonga. Vatungamiriri vanorangarira vatongi semhinganidzo kupurogiramu yavo vakashandisa denho pavatongi senzira yezvamatongerwe enyika. Munyika dzakasiyana seIsrael, Poland, uye Brazil, kwave kune nhamburiko dzinopfuurira dzokunetesa matare. Izvi zvinoitika zvinoratidza kuti kuzvitonga hakugoni kutorwa sechinorerutswa kunyange muhurumende dzinosarudzwa navanhu dzakakura. Masangano amarudzi ose avanhu, akadai se Vanice Count yeDare reEurope, akabudisa mirangariro nerumbidzo zvakarongeka pakuchengeta chigadziko, asi kuchengetwa kunoramba kusina simba.

Michina Yokudzivirira Nokusimbisa Kuzvimirira Kwokutonga

Dzichifunga nezvezvinetso zvacho, nyika nemasangano enyika dzakawanda akatanga nzira dzakasiyana - siyana dzokutsigira kuzvitonga. Izvi zvinosanganisira:

  • Consitugational and regional vimbiso [: Gadziriro dzinoshanda nokuda kwokutonga, kugadza kwakavakirwa pafaniro, uye dare redare razvimirira rinokosha. Nyika zhinji dzakagamuchira gadziridzo dzebumbiro remitemo dzinokuita kuti kuve kwakaomera hurumende kudzongonyedza.
  • Kutarisira kwenyika yose: mitumbi yebvumirano yekodzero dzavanhu, yakadai seUN Rights Committee neDare Rinorwisana nokutambudza, nguva dzose kuhwirudzura kuwirirana kwehurumende nemipimo yokuzvimirira. Kurumbidza kwavo, nepo kusingasungi pamutemo, kunoshandisa dzvinyiriro yetsika neyamasangano.
  • matare ekodzero dzavanhu eruwa: ECTHR, Inter-American Court, uye African Court on Human and People’s Rights inogona kutsiva nyunyuto pamusoro pokuputswa kwekodzero kudare rakazvimirira. Kutonga kwavo kungada kuti mitemo kana kuti miitiro ichinje.
  • Chivako chokurovedza nechinogoneka[[FT:1]: Masangano akafanana ne International Bar Association neUN Development Programme inogovera zviwanikwa zvedzidzo yokutonga nokuchinja zvinhu, zvikurukuru munyika dzinoderera kana kuti dzinovanzwa pashure pekunge dzabuda.
  • Kunzvera nzanga nezvinobudisa nhau: Mapoka ekodzero dzavanhu, masangano enzvimbo dzokushandira, uye vatori venhau vakazvimirira vanoita basa rinokosha mukuratidzira denho pakuzvimirira kwokutonga. Kuzivisa vanhu kunogona kunyandura chishoro kukudzokera shure.
  • Batira pamwe yeInternational nezvirango: European Union inogona kudzivisa mari kana kuti kuisa zvirango pamitezo nyika dzinoputsa kuzvimirira kwokutonga. Muzvinoitika zvakanyanyisa, UN Security Council inogona kuita chiito, kunyange zvazvo kudzorwa kunowanzoganhurira kushanda kwayo.

Nguva Yemberi Yokuzvimirira Mukutonga Munyika Yakabatana

Sezvo nyika inova inobatana zvikuru, basa rokuzvimirira kwokutonga mukuumba mipimo yamaruramiro avanhu sezvingabvira richakura. Mutemo wamarudzi ose wamaruramiro avanhu unotsamira nenzira inowedzera pakuitwa kwemhuri: zvibvumirano zvinomanikidzirwa pamwero wenyika kupfurikidza nematare. Panguva imwe cheteyo, ruzivo rwemitemo, mikana yemitemo inodzorwa, uye masangano amarudzi ose anoparira denho itsva. Matare anofanira kurwisana nenhau dzakadai serusaruraganda, simba remitevedzero, uye kodzero yokuva voga munyika inonzvera. Pasina kuzvimirira, haagoni kupedza zvinetso izvi zvakaoma uye zvinopomerwa zvezvamatongerwe enyika.

Uyezve, matare anozvimirira anokosha kuti atsigire mutemo muzvivako zvokutonga zvenyika yose, zvakadai sematare ezvemari munyika yose, matare eutsotsi munyika yose, uye maWTO anokakavadzana. Masangano aya anovimba nokusasarura uye unyanzvi hwepamutemo hwevatongi. Apo kuzvitonga kwawo kunobvunzwa (8) sekwakaitika neWTO Applellate Body kana kuti ICCC) tsika yose inotambura.

Kunewo kuzivikanwa kunowedzera kwokuti kuzvimirira kwokutonga kwakabatanidzwa nenharidzano huru dzenzanga dzakadai sekubudirira kwezvemari, utano hwavanhu, uye dziviriro yemhoteredzo. Nzvero inoratidzira kuti nyika dzine kuzvimirira kworutongeso kwakasimba dzine zvinyorwa zviri nani zvavanhu, mwero yakakwirira yemitengo yemari yakananga yokumwe, uye masangano ehurumende inokurira. Ikoku kunoita kuti kudzivirirwa kwokuzvimirira kwedare kusava nhau yapamutemo bedzi asi chinhu chinokosha chinotsigirwa nokuda kwekubudirira.

Mugumisiro: Guardian of Human Rights Isina Kukosha

Kuzvimirira mukutonga kunopfuura zvikuru nheyo yapamutemo yakaoma; injini inoshanda inopa upenyu kumipimo yamarudzi ose yavanhu. matare eependero anodudzira zvibvumirano, anotonga hurumende, uye anogadza mienzaniso inonzwika mumiganhu. Anodzivirira vanhu pasimba roudzvinyiriri, anodzivirira vanhu vashomanene vasina dziviriro, uye anova nechokwadi chokuti vanhu vose vanogona kutsvaka ruramisiro pasina rutyo. Zvinetso zvavanotarisana nazvo (8) nezvamatongerwe enyika, uori, denho dzechipulcist, denho dzinorwisa dzinoda kurwisa, (8) zvakakura, asi ndizvowo zvishandiso zvinowanika kuti vadziviririre.

Nemhaka yeizvi, kurwisa kwose kwokuzvitonga kwedare kunoitwa nedare kunoitwa nehurumende ine simba kana kuti sangano. Ukuwo, kurwisa kwose kwokuzvitonga kwedare kunokanganisa kuvaka uye kukanganisa chivimbo chevoruzhinji. Vagari vemo, magweta, nzanga yevagari vemo, uye masangano emarudzi ose anofanira kuramba akangwarira. Kurwisa kupfuurira kuchengetedza nokusimudzira kuzvitonga kwesimba kurwisana nepfungwa yokuti hapana munhu ari pamusoro pomutemo uye kuti munhu wose ane kodzero yokutonga zvakarurama zvakafanana. Seizvo zvinotaura Dare rapamberi reSangano ra1914 raMadokero, “Vatongi vehurumende vanofanira kuramba vakangwarira. Kurwisa kuchengetedza nokuwedzera rusununguko rwemitemo kunoitwa nehurumende. Kupesana ikoko kunoreva kuti nyika yose inotonga vanhu, kodzero dzose dzinotonga nzanga yose.