Dzidziso Yokuchinja: Chinjo Yezana Ramakore rechi 20 muAmerican Federalism

Incorporation Doctrine inomira seimwe yefambiro mberi dzinochinja zvikurusa mumutemo weAmerica webumbiro remitemo, ichivandudza zvikuru ukama pakati pehurumende yehurumende nehurumende. Pamavambo payo, dzidziso inosarudza kuti igadziriroi dzeBill of Rights(apo pakuvamba dzakaitirwa bedzi kudzvinyirira hurumende dzorudzi(wwwn organce). Kubvira muzana ramakore ramakumi maviri rapakuvamba, Dare Rapamusoro rakabatanidza nenzira inofambira mberi dziviriro dzakawanda zvikurusa, dzichiwedzera zvikuru rusununguko rwomunhu mumwe nomumwe uye kudzikamisazve dzikamo yesimba mutsika dzehurumende. Iyi mhindumupinduko, kure nokuva chinoitika chimwe, yave inotsiviwa, inosimudzirwa nenhau dzinooneka, nhevedzano, majekerero, mazivi, magariro emitemo, uye kurukurirano yenzanga dzinopfuurira.

Mavambo: Kubva kuBarron Kuenda kuFirimendeji Yechigumi Nechina

Idzidziso yeIncorporation Doctrine haina kubuda muchinhu chisingakoshi. Midziro yayo yendangariro iri mushure meHondo yeChizvarwa chemone nokugamuchirwa kweGavhura re14 muna 1868. Pamberi paizvozvo, chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa mu Barron v. Baltimore[[FL:1] [1833] yakasimbisa zvakasimba kuti Bill of Rights yaishanda bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende yehurumende, kwete kunyika. Mutongi mukuru John Marshall akarangarira kuti kupera kwemitemo kwakanga kwaitirwa simba rorudzi rapamberi yakaitwa, kwete pahurumende ichangobva kuvambwa. Ikoku kwakareva kuti mugariro waigona, somuenzaniso, kusimbisa kana kuti kutora pfuma pasina kubhadharwa, kwenguva refu seizvo, sezvo pamutemo yawo imene yakabvumira.

Gemendment ye14th Demeters yakachinja magariro emitemo. Maropafadzo ayo kana kuti maImmunities Claus, Access Claus, uye Applime Proce Procespital Claus yakagadzirirwa kudzivirira varanda vachangobva kusunungurwa padzvinyiriro yehurumende. Zvisinei, mu Saaker-Nyumba [[FLLT:1] [1873], Dare Rapamusoro rakabvisa nenzira inobudirira maropafadzo kana kuti Immutunities Claus, rikadzivirira bedzi kodzero shomanene yougaro worudzi (zvakaita maruramiro okukumbira). Chisarudzo ichi chakavhara suo panzira yakananga yokushandisa marurano kupfurikidza nomutemo iwoyo. Panzvimbo pezvo, Dare rakatendeukira kuMasangano eCreast Claus, iro rinorambidza "Manyuko, kana kuti munhu asunurwe, zvinhu zvomutemo."

Kwamakumi amakore, Dare rakaramba pfungwa yokuti Gungano reChibvumirano chaClaus raigona kushandiswa kubatanidza Bill of Rights vimbiso chaidzo. Mu Hurtado v. California (1884), rakaramba kukumbira hurumende kushandisa mhesvedzo huru dzedare, dziviriro yaiwanikwa muFitempite Amendment. Murangariro wakapararira wakanga uri wokuti "kukurumidza" wakanga uri murangariro unochinjika uyo unonongedzera kumipimo yapakuvamba yeruramisiro, kwete kugadziriro dzakananga dzezvibvumirano zvokutanga zvisere. Iyi mirangariro yakasiyiwa norusununguko rukuru rwokurondedzera miitiro yavo vamene youtsotsi nerusununguko rwavagari vemo.

"Kunatsa" Murangariro Emergets

Nguva yokuchinja yakauya mukuvamba kwezana ramakore ramakumi maviri, sezvo Dare rakavamba kuziva kuti dzimwe maruramiro akanga anokosha kwazvo zvokuti akanga ari "akavakirwa mumurangariro werusununguko rwakarairwa" uye naizvozvo anofanira kudzivirirwa muchiito chehurumende. Iyi rondedzero, inozivikanwa se inosarudza kubatanidzwa [, yakawana pashoma napashoma. Kubudirira kukuru kwakanga kuri v. New York[FLT] [[FLT]] [25], umo Dare rairangarirwa, pasina kusarudza zvizere, kuti rusununguko rwokutanga rwehurukuro yakashanda kupfurikidza nokutaura kupfurikidza neProselsources. Kunyange zvazvo Dare rakatsigira kupwirira kwomutemo weNew York, nhau yemitemo yepasuokero yemasuokero.

March Anononoka: Nhau Huru Dzamazana Amakore Ane 20

Kuvambira muma 1920 kusvikira kuma 1960, Dare Gurusa rakapinda mumuitiro wechikamu chenhau wokubatanidza rudyi rumwe panguva, mhaka nenhau. Uyu mutoo, wakatsigirwa noMutongi Benjamin Cardozo uye gare gare naMutongi Hugo Black (Hakusi Black akada hwerengedzo kupfurikidza neMaropafadzo kana kuti Immunion Claus), wakabudisa boka rakapfuma romutemo iro muna Chonde rakatambanudzira dziviriro dzehurumende kuhurumende.

Kusunungurwa Kwokutanga Kwechibvumirano

Pashure pa Gitlow, Dare rakakurumidza kubatanidza rumwe rusununguko rweFirst Amendment. Near Networb v. Minnesota [1931]) rakashandisa Free Plasce Clause kubvisa mutemo wehurumende wakanga wadzivisa pepanhau kubudisa. [[FLT:] Cantwell v.[[FLT]] Connectoption [[FL:5]] [1940]) yakabatanidza rudzidziso rweFree Express Claus, , runodzivirira kukumbira kworudzidziso. [FL:] Evonel v. Dare reEdzidzo[FLT] [FLT] [57] (1947] muKuumbwa kwaClautsai, kugona kusagona kupfuuresa pamutemo "idzika kusimbisa rudzidziso urwu runoshatsatiswa." runoziviswa nhasi.

Kudzivirira Kwematsotsi

Warren Court (1953-1969) yakatungamirira kukura kunoshamisa zvikurusa kwokubatanidza, zvikurukuru mumuitiro woutsotsi. Pamberi penhambo ino, mitemo yakanga yakasununguka zvikuru kugadza mitemo yavo vamene nokuda kwokunzvera, kubvunzurudza, uye kutongwa. Ikoko kwakachinja nenhevedzano yemitemo yakatanhamara:

  • [FLT]] Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Dare raibatanidza dziviriro yeFirencement yeChina pakunzvera kusina mufungo nepfari uye, nomutoo wakakomba, rakashandisa mutemo wekubvisa kudare redare. Ufakazi hwakawanwa zvisiri pamutemo namapurisa ehurumende hahungagoni kushandiswazve mukutonga kwoutsotsi, kuchinja kukuru mumiitiro yokudzika mutemo wenyika.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Iyi chisarudzo chakabatana chakabatanidza kodzero yeSikisi formformation kuzano, ichida kuti nyika dzigovere gweta kuvakwiri vaipomerwa vaisagona kutenga imwe muzvinoitika zvengozi. Chisarudzo chakashandura gadziriro dzedziviriro dzavose ndokusimbisa kuti muedzo wakarurama unoda kumirira kwapamutemo kune revo.
  • Mira v. Arizona (1966): nepo isiri chaizvoizvo mhaka yokubatanidzwa (ishandisira mipimo yehurumende kudzikamisa mutemo nehurumende muIndaneti yeFi5 neMitemo yeChitanhatu), [[FLT:] Miranda yakatanga nyevero dzinorwisana nokuzvibatanidza, idzo dzose dzinotaura dzinofanira kutevera.
  • [FLT][[FUN] v. Louisiana (1968): Yakabatanidza maruramiro eSitanhatu Echibvumirano kukutonga dare redare redare ramatare mumhaka dzakakomba, ichida kuti nyika dzigove nedare rinobetsera vanhu vanenge vatanhatu mumiedzo yakadaro.

Mamwe mabatanidzwa mukati menhambo iyi aibatanidza Findremendment maruramiro okuzvidzivisa ( Malloy v. Hogan, 1964); maruramiro okunangana nezvapupu ([] Pointernv. Texas, 1965; kurudyi kumuedzo wakakurumidza ([[FLT:]4]] Kloffer. North Carolina v[[FLT], 1967]; kodzero yokumanikidzwa kuwana zvapupu [[FLT]]] , , yainenge iri muganhu weGOngeri yakashandiswa.[FLT] v[FLT], 1967], uye dziviriro padzinongedzei.[FLT]

Kugadziridzwa Kwechipiri uye Kupfuura

Nhanho yokubatanidza yakanonozeka pashure pama 1970, asi haina kumira chose chose. Mukaha mumwe unocherekedzwa wakasara: Sunday Amendment yeChipiri maruramiro okuchengeta nokutakura zvombo. Kwamakumi amakore, matare maduku akafunga kuti Pession Yechipiri haina kushanda kuhurumende, ichitsamira panhau yapamberi pemakumi maviri, [[FLT] United States v. Cructshank[[FLT][11][FLT] [18]] [18] [18], iyo yakanga yarangarira kuti kodzero yokutakura zvombo yakanga isiri ropafadzo yorudzi. Iyo yakachinja [[FLT:]] [5] murutivi rwenhau rwokutanga [FLT].[5] [4] [inoshandiswa naitatu]

Nenzira yakafanana, kubatanidzwa kweShunami yeSendment’s Fine Sert Claus yakauya mu Timbs v. Indiana (2029), apo Dare rakabatana rakasarudza kuti hurumende nehurumende dzomunzvimbomo hadzigoni kuisa faindi yakanyanyisa, yakadai sedzisingawiswi nemhosho. Iyi mhaka yakasimbisazve kuti kunyange gadziriro dzinoshanda kumasangano acho dzinoda kududzirwa kunopfuurira.

Gadziriro Dzisina Kubatanidzwa: Dzinosiyanisa Zvishomanene

Pasinei zvapo nokuwedzera kukuru kwemhosva, Bill of Rights shomanene zvinovimbisa zvinoramba zvisina kubatanidzwa. Kurambidza kweThird Amendment kwevarwi vane zvikamu zvina mumisha yevanhu hakuna kumbobatanidzwa, sezvinobvira nemhaka yokuti hakusati kwamboitwa. Chinodikanwa cheFindth Amendment chedare guru redare rinotonga mhosva dzakakomba ( Hurtado v. California, 188) hachina kushandiswa kunyika; masangano akawanda anoshandisa kutongwa kwokutanga panzvimbo pemifungo mikuru. Kutonga kweSande kunoitwa mudare redare revagari vemo rinodzora munopfuura $20 kunorambawo kusingabvumirwi, zvinoreva nyika dzinogona kugadza mitemo yadzorwa nokuda kwokutonga kwevagari vemo. Uye kurambidza kurambidza kurambidza kunyanyisa kurambidza kudzodzodzodzo kupfurikidza nokupfumba kwedare.

Idzi mhesano dzinosimbisa rudzi runosarudza rwokubatanidza. Dare harina kugamuchira "Chinokwana" rondedzero inotsigirwa neMutongi Black, iyo yaizoshandisa gadziriro iri yose yeBill of Rights Councils. Panzvimbo pezvo, yakatsamira paKunzvera kweGungano yaClaus nenhau nekamwe yekuti kodzero inokosha kurusununguko neruramisiro here.

Nharo Dzamaoretari: Mavhiri Anosarudza. Akakwana

Idzidziso yeIncorporation Doctrine yave iri nzvimbo inorwisana nokuda kwerondedzero dzinokwikwidzana dzedudziro yebumbiro remitemo. Vatsigiri ve vanosarudza kubatanidzwa , uko kwave kuri mutoo mukuru weDare, vanopikisa kuti rinobvumira kuchinjika, kuremekedza misiyano yehurumende apo inodzivirira rusununguko rukuru. Zvisinei, vanoonesa kuti kubatanidzwa kwakasarudzwa kwave kwakashandiswa nenzira isingachinjiki, pane dzimwe nguva kuchiwedzera kodzero uye pane dzimwe nguva kuramba kuita kudaro kwakavakirwa pamirangariro yeinonzi "Franda renjing".

Kubatanidza , sokutsigirwa neMutongi Black, kwaizobatanidza nyika kumipimo imwe cheteyo yekodzero sehurumende yehurumende, kubvisa kusajeka. Black akapikisa kuti Ropafadzo kana kuti maImmunio Claus akanga aitirwa pakuvamba kuita ikoku, uye kuti mutoo wakasarudzwa weDare wakaparira dare rekodzero dzisina kufanira. Nepo kubatanidzwa kwese hakuna kutongoraira voruzhinji, rinopfuurira senzvimbo inopesvedzera, nguva pfupi yapfuura zvikuru yakamutswa noMutongi Clarence Thomas, uyo akapikisa kuti Roparomatiki kana kuti Immunicos Claus imotokari yakafanira nokuda kwokubatanidza.

Mutoo wechitatu, kubatanidzwa, pane dzimwe nguva kunoshandiswa kurondedzera nhau umo Dare rinoshandisa Bill of Rights kudzivirira hurumende kupfurikidza nokupa chibvumirano kubva kumuitiro wehurumende kana kuti kuGaramende ye14. Somuenzaniso, rutivi rwakaenzana rwedziviriro yeFth Amendment’s Reservement yeClaus (BLing v. Sharpe] idzidziso yokuchinja, ivimbisa kuti hurumende inosungwa nedziviriro yakafanana neizvozviteshi zveGeneticlement ([FLT]]B]BHOLD] dzidziso yokubatanidza, inoreva kuti hurumende inosungirwa nemitemo yakafanana neiyiyo yomutemo yeGeneti 150t Amendmentsmeticstion.

Tapuro Parusununguko Rwevagari Vemo veAmerica

Muuyo unoshanda wokubatanidza wave wakakura. Pamberi pokubatanidza, mirangariro ingagona , uye yakawanda yakaita − ne(asvetage mumiitiro iyo zvino yaizova isingawirirani nehurumende: kutanga machechi apamutemo, kunzvera pasina pamutemo, kuedza vakwirirwi pasina zano, uye zvirango zvine utsinye. Kudzorwa kworudzi kwapanyika, kuva nechokwadi chokuti pasinei zvapo nenzvimbo iyo munhu anogara, vanofarikanya dziviriro imwe cheteyo huru mukurwisana nehurumende inonyengera.

Uku kubatana kwenyika hakuna kuva negakava. Vatsoropodzi vanobva kurudyi rwezvamatongerwe enyika vakarangarira kuti kubatanidza simba redare rehurumende mudare rehurumende, kusekesa uchangamire hwehurumende uye kuita chisarudzo chehurumende yehurumende. Mutongi John Marshall Harlan II, somuenzaniso, akapesana muNkasaro zhinji dzeWarren, kunyevera kuti Dare rakanga richishandura Bill of Rights kuva "bumbiro remitemo yeutsotsi" nokuda kwenyika. Kuruboshwe, dzimwe nyanzvi dzinotaura kuti kubatira pamwe hakuna kusvika kure, achisiya nharaunda dzakafanana nokuparadza, mireza yehurumende, uye rusununguko rwemari kuti ive dare revo revo rehurumende.

Pasinei zvapo nemurangariro womunhu, Incorporation Doctrine ibwe renheyo remitemo yazvino uno yeAmerica. Yakachinja Bill of Rights kubva pabumbiro remitemo pahurumende yehurumende kuva gadziriro yakafara yedziviriro nokuda kwomunhu ari wose pamitengo yose yehurumende. Iyi mhindumupindu inoratidzira chinjo huru zvikuru mukunzwisisa: kuti rusununguko runovimbiswa neBumbiro remitemo harugoni kutsamira pazvinoitika zvemiganhu yenyika.

Kubudirira Kwezana Remakore Rechi21 uye Kutungamirira Kwenguva Yemberi

Voruzhinji veDare gurusa vanoramba vachishandisa kubatanidzwa, kunyange zvazvo kazhinji kazhinji munzira dzisingakarirwi. McDonald v.Chicago (2010)) (2010) yakanga iri huru nokuda kwokuva huru pamusoro peChinjo Yechipiri seyaibatanidza. Timbs v. Indiana Dare rakabvumirana, asi Mutongi Thomas akashandisa kubvumirana kudzokorora murangariro wake wokuti Ropafadzo kana kuti Immunity Clausska ihwaro yakarurama nokuda kwokubatanidza idio.] nzvimbo iyo yaigona kudzorera kana ichishandiswa.

Mumwe mubvunzo wakajeka ndewokuti Dare ringatongobatanidza here maruramiro okuchengeta nokutakura zvombo nokuda kworuvoko kunze kwomusha ( New York State Rifle & Lamp; Pistol Association v. Breen, 2022, inosiiwa kumatare akaderera asi asina kubatanidza kubatanidzwa kwechibvumirano), kana kuti zvimwe mativi eRendecter Confection kana kuti Mutemorive Bail Claus achava anoshanda nenzira yapamutemo. Dare rakasiyawo bviro yokuti dzimwe kodzero hadzina kududzwa muReko dzekodzero dzekodzero dzekodzero dzemunhu oga (chakarurama) kana kuti zvakaenzana nedzisiri dzorudyi kukuva dzoga dzoga dzoga dzoga. [5], apo dzinoshandiswa mumitemo inodzose.[5]

Nokuda kwokuraviwazve pakubatanidza, Cornell Information yeIndaneti yeMashoko inogovera nhepfenyuro pfupi. Oyez Project [[ inopa nhau nokuda kwezvisarudzo zvikuru. Nokuda kwenzvero yenhau yakadzama, ona Akhil Reedmar’s [[FLT:] Bill of Rights: Creation na Convention [INyuwerome, 1998], inonzvera revo yapakuvamba yeGenetimedzo yeGeneticleticle yeReformations kuukama hwaBill yekodzero dzeChinearGenear.

mhedziso

Chitendero cheIncorporation Doctrine hachisi chinhu chisingazivikanwi. Sezvo kunyora kweDare Rapamusorosoro kunochinja uye sezvo mibvunzo mitsva inomuka pamusoro pechivande chetedzero, ruzivo rwokugadzirwa kwezvinhu, uye simba rehurumende, dzidziso yacho ichapfuurira kushanduka. Yakavamba serakatetepa, kupanikira kwokurava kwe 1448 Amend Amendment kwazova chinhu chine simba zvikuru chokuchengetedzwa kwekodzero dzevanhu. Gadziriro yokusarudza kodzero dzevagari vemo yave, makore anopfuura zana, yakabatanidza Bhishopu yekodzero dzehurumende mumutemo chaiwo, ichivimbisa kuti rusununguko rweAmerica harusingori chipikirwawo chomubatanidzwa asi chinhu chaichoicho chavagari vemo vose, hapana chinhu chavanoga chavanogara. Kana ruramisiro yomunguva yemberi ichi ichi chicharamba ichibatanidza kusava nekodzero dzayo kana kuti dzivezve mavambozve, gakava pamusoro pokusvika kwakakodzera kwemitemo yemitemo yemitemo yemitemo yaMakore 20 20 (20) inovimbisa kuti ive chipfuure kuva chinhu chikuru zvikuru.