Mavambo Edzidziso Yokusawirirana

Iconporation Doctrine inomirira imwe yemisiano mikurusa yemitemo yeAmerica, ichichinja zvikurukuru ukama pakati pehurumende yehurumende nehurumende. Pamavambo payo, dzidziso inosarudza kuti igadziriroi dzeChivimbo chekodzero dzinoshanda kuhurumende kupfurikidza neChession Procession of the 1450 Amendment. Pamberi pezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri, Dare Rapamusoro rakaramba richidavira kuti Bill of Rights yakaganhurira hurumende yehurumende yehurumende bedzi, ichisiya masangano akasununguka kurondedzera dziviriro dzawo amene nokuda kwekodzero dzavo. Mhaka yehurumende ye . [FLT] Barron] v.[FLG] [1833]) yakasimbisa uyu murangariro wakaganhurirwa, unodzora kusashandisa mashoko. Nokuda kwezana ramakore rinodongodaro, rakava rakavakwa nomutemo wakagadziriswa, uye hazvina kudzorwa matare ehurumende kuti zviito zvakatongedzerwa kudzo.

Kurondedzerwa kweKireast Amendment muna 1868, neMaropafadzo ayo kana kuti maImmuniti Claus, Adrect Procesme Claus, uye Emedial Protection Claus, zvakavhura nzira itsva yebumbiro remitemo. Zvisinei, kududzirwa kwapakuvamba kweDare Gurusa re 1449th Amend Amendment mu Slainter Cases [[[[FLLT:1]]] Casess] [1873] [1]) zvinobudirira kubvisa maruramiro kana kuti Immubatanidzwa Classiaste, zvichiganhurira dziviriro dzawo dzakapakwa nekodzero dzehurumende. Kwamakumi amakore, Dare rakapfuurira kudzivisa pfungwa yokuti Bill of Rights anoshanda kumashoko, kusimbisa kubatanidzwa kwehurumende uko kwakasiyiwa zvikurukuru muzvinhu zvehurumende. Kwakanga hakuna kuva muzana ramakore rechimakumi maviri okuvamba kusvikira kurangarirazve kuitwe kweichito yedare, uye chigaro chapamutemo chapamutemo chapamutemo chapamutemo chakakurumbira.

Basa Repfungwa Dzisingabvumirani Pakushatisa Dzidziso

Nepo mirangariro mizhinji inewo hayo simba romutemo, kazhinji kazhinji mifungo inopesana inodyara mbeu dzechinjo yomunguva yemberi yapamutemo. Mumashoko akapoteredza eIncorporation Doctrine, kusabvumirana kwakabatira sezvidzoreso zvoungwaru umo vatongi vakataura zvimwe zviono zvehurumende, mutoo wakafanira, uye mwero wekodzero dzomunhu oga. Uku kusabvumirana hakuna kungopupurira kusabvumirana bedzi; kwakagovera kunzvera kwapamutemo kuti mativi makuru a gare gare gare aizogamuchira, padzimwe nguva makumi amakore gare gare gare. Naizvozvo mhindu yokubatanidza inhau kwete bedzi yeizvo Dare rakaita asi yokurwisana neruramisiro kwaifanira kuita Dare.

Kusabvumira mumiitiro yokubatanidza kwaiwanzodenha mutoo wakapararira we “kusarudza”, uko kwakashanda bedzi Bill of Rights dziviriro idzo dzinorangarirwa kuva“ dzinowirirana nechirongwa chorusununguko rwakarairwa.” Vatsoropodzi vakapikisa kuti uyu mupimo wakanga uri wechisarudzo choushingi uye wakasiya uchenjeri hwakawanda kuvatongi. Panzvimbo pezvo, ava vapanduki vakatsigira nokuda kwe“sesero” kana kuti“ kuva pamwe chete na" ne". [8] murangariro wokuti [Dimerimetermeter] yekodzero [L] yose yeGeneti Reformation] yakaita kuti Bill of Rights ishande kumaruwa kana kuti kunyange kutambanutsa dzimwe kodzero dzinokosha dzinokosha dzisingarengwi mumagweta masere okutanga. Nepo kudzosero asingatongorayira voruzhinji, pesvedzero yayo hairambiki mukukura kwapamhiko yekodzero dzinobatanidzwa zvishoma nezvishoma muzana ramakore rechimakumi maviri.

Pfungwa Huru Dzisingabvumirani Nezvadzinokanganisa

Kusafara kweMutongi Harlan Palko v. Connecticut[[FL:1] (1937)

Chisarudzo cheDare mu Palko v. Connecticut ichiratidzo mugadziriro inosarudzwa, asi murangariro unopesana waMutongi John Marshall Harlan (mukuru) akapa chiono chakasiana zvikuru. Mu [[FLT:] Palko, voruzhinji, vachitaura kupfurikidza neRuramisiro Cardozo, vaidavira kuti dziviriro yeFindber Gamendment yaibatira kumifungo yakapetwa kaviri nemhaka yokuti yakanga isiri “mufungo mumurangariro werusununguko rwakarairwa.” Voruzhinji vakagadza danda rakakwirira nokuda kwokubatanidza: kodzero idzo “dzakavakirwa mumagamuchidzanwa nehana zvavanhu vedu bedzi.

Mutongi Harlan akapesana, achisimbisa kuti mufungo wemuitiro wakafanira muIneth Amendment unofanira kunzwisiswa zvikuru. Akaomerera kuti dziviriro dzeBill of Rights idzo dziri “pamufungo” dzinobatanidza chiverengero chikuru cherusununguko kupfuura voruzhinji vanobvuma. Nenzira yakarevedzana, Harlan akachengeta kuti kurambidza kukuvadziko yakapetwa kaviri kwakanga kuri maruramiro anokosha kwazvo zvokuti kunofanira kudzivirirwa pahurumende sechinopesana nehurumende. Kudzivisa kwake hakuna kubatira pamwe chete nokuiswa kwegadziriro youchenjeri yaizodudzwa gare gare gare, [FFON]. [12]

Chiratidzo che Justice Black’s Disact Adamson v. California (1947)

Zvichida kusabvumirana kune simba zvikurusa uye kwenhau kukuru mukubatanidzwa kwakabva kuMutongi Hugo Black mu Adamson v. California. Muchiitiko ichocho, vazhinji, vaitungamirirwa naMutongi Felix Frankfurter, vakatsigira mutemo weCalifornia wakabvumira murovereri wemhaka pamusoro pokukundikana kwomukwiridzi kupupurira pamitongo. Vatema vakapikisa kuti muitiro uyu wakaputsa ropafadzo yeFind Find 5Find Amendment mukurwisana nokuzvibatanidza, kwaaidavira kuti wakabatanidzwa zvizere neFiredith Amendment. Kupesana kweBlack kwaisangovawo kusabvumiranawo zvako namaidi neidi.

Mutongi Black akapikisana kuti vagadziri veKill of Rights ye14th Amendment vaivavarira kushandisa Bill of Rights kunyika. Akatsigira nharo dzake nokuongorora nhau yokugadziridza nhau yokunyora, kubatanidza mashoko edare guru rinotsigira, Mumiririri John Bingham, uye mimwe mitezo yeCongress. Black vakapikisa kuti Ropanotion kana kuti Immunites Claus, kana akadudzirwa zvakanaka, angadai akakwanisa kupedza kupedza kunyorwa kwese kwadzo kubva pakutanga, asi kuti Dare raikanganisa kuverengwa mu [[FLT:]] Caseter-Imbars

Kupesana kweBlack mu Adamson haina kunyengetedza voruzhinji muna 1947, asi yakava nepesvedzero huru pakubatanidzwa kwakatevera. Mutongi Black akapfuurira kutsigira jokisi rose mumhaka, uye mirangariro yake yakawana kunyorwa semagadzirirwo eDare rakachinja. Dare reWarren Court, iro rakatungamirira kubva kuma1950 kusvikira kuma1960, rakagamuchira murangariro mukuru mukuru wekodzero dzakabatanidzwa, richiswedederedzera kukuona kwaBlack. [FLT:][FF:][5] [FF]]

Chirango chaBrandeis mu Whitney v. California (1927)

Kunyange zvazvo [[FLT:] nhau yakabata zvikurukuru norusununguko rwokutaura muPendrence", iyo yakanga yabatanidzwa mu Gitrow v. New York [1925]) (Ruratice Louis Brandeis [kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji] pfungwa (inotapurwa sechisimudziko chavanhu vazhinji mukuramba kushandisa mupimo mukuru) ichinyorwa chehwaro munhau. Brandheirs akanyora zvakaparadzana kupikisa kuti Gadziro reKineth Republicletic Res yakadzivirira zvikuru kupfuura kodzero dzavo huru dzinongofanana nemhiko dzinodikanwa nesangano. Iye akazivisa nenzira yakakurumbira kuti iko kutsunga kusunungura vanhu kusunungura rusununguko rwokuzvitonga.]

Murangariro waBradei wakapesvedzera kugamuchirwa kwapashure kweDare kwe “ngozi yakajeka neyazvino” kunzvera ganhuriro dzokutaura, mupimo wakakwidziridza dziviriro yokuratidzirwa kwezvamatongerwe enyika pamusoro pefariro dzehurumende. Nepo Bradeis asina kuraira zvakajeka nokuda kwevwerengedzo yose, kurangarira kwake kwakatsigira kuraviwa kwakafara kweMitemo yeMitemo yeMineine yaizoshandiswa gare gare gare kubatanidza mashoko eFirst Amendment nesimba rakazara mukurwisana nehurumende. Murangariro wake Whitneyy [ unoramba uri mupimo wokunzwisisa mifungo youzivi yeChibvumirano.

Justice Douglas’s Disand [[FL:0] Hurtado v. California (1884)

Kunyange zvazvo kuvambira panhambo yapamberi pane dzimwe nharo dzakakurukurwa, kusabvumirana kweMutongi Stephen Field mu Hurtado v. California kazhinji kazhinji inodudzwa sechinhu chapakuvamba kuvamba kuvamba nharo. Mu Hurtado[[FLT]], Dare rakabatanidza kuti chinodikanwa cheFindmergate Gemeterrament hachina kushanda kumite div. Mutongi Wewe, wakabatanidzwa naMutongi Brac, akapesana, achipikisana kuti Republic Reformation yeGromentation yakabatanidza zvose dziviriro yeRevotion yekodzero dzinowirirana nokutarisirwa kweruramisiro. Kutonga kwapavhuko hakuna kutakura zuva, asi kwakadyara mbeu yomunguva yemberi. Pakate, uye kuvaka dare reSangano reChirudzo reBlay, rinofanira kusimbisa gadziriro dzapamutemo dzakajeka.

Mhindumupindu Kupfurikidza Nenhau Huru

Kupesana mu Palko, [[FT:2] Adamson, uye [[FLT]Whitney][[ haina kuchinja mutemo nokukurumidza, asi yakagadzira chivako chepfungwa dzepamutemo idzo matare apashure akawana. Muitiro wokubatanidza wakawedzera pashure pema1920, neDare richiita zvishoma nezvishoma gadziriro imwe yeChirongwa chekodzero pashure peimwe nyika. Chiteverwa chinotevera nguva chinosimbisa zviitiko zvinokosha:

  • [FLT]] Gitlow v. New York (1925) Dare raibatanidza rugwaro rweFirst Amendment yakasununguka, richivanza kuti rusununguko rwokutaura harugoni kudzorwa nepfungwa yakadziviswa zvikuru mukubatanidza Pedermendi yose yeFirst Amendment.
  • [FLT] Nearb v. Minnesota[[FL:2] (1931): Dare rakabatanidza rusununguko rwechikamu chinotsikirira, richitema mutemo wehurumende waibvumira pamberi pokuzvidzora.
  • [FLT] Cantwell v. Connecticut[[FL:2] (1940): Dare rakabatanidza kushandiswa kwapachena kwechikamu chomutsetse chorudzidziso.
  • - v. Board of Education (1947): Dare raibatanidza chitsauko chakagadzwa, kuchishandiswa kuparadzana kwechechi nehurumende kumasangano.
  • [FLT] Mapp v. Ohio (1961): Dare rakabatanidza mutemo weGaramende Rechina, kuchida kuti matare ehurumende arege kubudisa ufakazi hunowanwa kupfurikidza nokunzvera kusiri kwapamutemo.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Dare rakabatanidza maruramiro eTSMF] eTSM.
  • [FLT] Malloy v. Hogan (1964): Dare rakabatanidza ropafadzo yeFirefurencement mukurwisana nokuzvichinja kwepfungwa [[FLT:] Palko uye [[FLT]] Adamson.
  • [FLT][[FUN] v. Louisiana (1968): Dare rakabatanidza maruramiro eSitanhatu ePramendement yokutonga nedare dare rakakomba mumhaka dzeutsotsi dzakakomba, richigamuchira zvakajeka “kusaruramisira kwendangariro” kunotsigirwa negakava raMutongi Harlan [FLT:] Palko.
  • Benton v. Maryland [1969] Dare rakabatanidza Dare reFirefu yePrefence rakapeta rugwaro rwengozi, kudarika pa [[FLT:] Palko ndokusimbisa chiono chekupesana kwaHarlan.

Iyi nhau inoratidzira mutoo wakajeka: kupesana kwemirangariro yakakurudzira murangariro mukurusa wokubatanidzwa pakupedzisira yakava nzvimbo yavose. Dare rakabva mumuitiro wakasarudzwa zvikuru uyo wakasiya Bill of Rights yakawanda ichivimbisa kuti hapana kushanda kunodokuva kwese. Nhasi, inenge gadziriro dzose dzeBill of Rights dzinodzivirira rusununguko rwomunhu oga dzakabatanidzwa, nokumwe kushoma bedzi (zvakadai sokubatanidza kwechikamu chikurusa chavarwi neFindmerfendment kwedare guru redare, izvo Dare rakaramba zvakajeka kubatanidza ] mu [FLT]]

Kunetsa Kwazvino Uno uye Kuramba Tichiitisana Nharo

Dzidziso yokubatanidza inoramba iri nzvimbo huru yomutemo webumbiro-mitemo, kunyange zvazvo chivako chikuru chadzongonyedzwa zvikuru zvino. Zvisinei, mirangariro inopesana inopfuurira kuita basa mukuumba miganhu yayo. Somuenzaniso, mu McDonald v. Guta reChicago[ (202010), Dare rakabatanidza maruramiro eChimbishipiti kuti zvichengeterwe nokutakura zvombo zvinova nechisarudzo chenhau zvose. Zvisarudzo muvaduku zvakataura kuti Kuchinja kwechipiri kwakanga kusati kuri kwakakomba munzira imwe cheteyo nedzimwe kodzero, kudzokorora zvibvumikiso zvakasarudzwa [FLDF:] [FLT] [F] [F] .[5] , uye `FT]

Gakava pamusoro poukoshi hwokubatanidza rinotambanukirawo kuchirambidzo cheSendment yehard Reconsole pafaces yakanyanyisa neChirango chine utsinye neChisina Kurovedzeka. Mu Timbs v. Indiana (2011]), Dare rakabatanidzawo zvikamu zvakaisvonaka zvakanyanyisa, asi mibvunzo yakakura zvikuru ichiri pamusoro pokuti Demendement ye145 yeChibvumirano chaClausces kana kuti maropafadzo kana kuti maImmatunicle ndiroacle yakakodzera kubatanidza. Dzimwe nyanzvi nevatongi, kubatanidza Kurangarirazve Dare reChirationgeriti kana kuti Immu yeIm Claus sehwaromeose sehwaro yemifungo yemifungo yetsika inonzwika zvikuru nokuda kwokubatanidza ruramisiro maSanikscracrati [Foctson] [Foctson]] [F3]

Zviwanikwa zvokuwedzera kurava zvinobatanidza Cornell Information Institute ye Inconational Doctrine , [[FLT:]Oyez] chirongwa chepeji ye [[ Timbs v. Indiana[[[FLT]], uye [[FTLT:6] Bumbiro reMitemo reINTERN] reINT . Manyuko iwawaro anogovera mashoko pamusoro pechinjo yenhau nerevo yenguva yapanguva ino.

mhedziso

Iyi njo ine musengwa mukuru yokupesana naMagariro makuru. Iyi mirangariro yakabva paBhili yekodzero dzakajeka kugadziriro inodzivirira rusununguko rukuru pakunyengera kwehurumende. Iyi shanduro ine mungava mukuru wokupesana nemirangariro yakadai seHarlan, Black, Brandeis, uye Field. Uku kusabvumirana hakuna kungoramba migumisiro yenhau dzakananga; vakapa rondedzero dzinowirirana dzakaita kuti zvishoma nezvishoma dzibvume setsika netsika dzechikaro. Kupesana kwacho kwakashanda sezviratiso zvamazano ouchenjeri, kutungamirira Dare kushandisiro huru nemvumo yekodzero dzavanhu. Nhasi, dzidziso dzinobatanidzwa dzinova pamutemo dzinowirirana nesimba remitemo yeAmerica mumutemo wemitemo yeAmerica inopesana netsika inova neyakaoma kudarika mwero, inova nguva inova yavanhu vazhinji.