Mavambo Enhau Ehwirudzuro Yorutongeso

Dzidziso yokuhwirudzura haidudzwi zvakajeka muBumbiro reMitemo reU.S., zvisinei, inodzokera kutsika dzapamutemo dzeEngland nemiitiro yehurumende. matare apakuvamba eAmerica panhambo nenhambo akabvisa mitemo yehurumende yairwisana namabumbiro emitemo ehurumende, asi simba rokurova mitemo yehurumende rakaramba risina kuedzwa kutozosvikira pariphabliki yapakuvamba.

Mhaka inokosha yakabatanidza hwirudzuro yedare pamwero wehurumende yakanga iri Marbury v. Madison [1803]. Yakasarudzwa naMutongi Mukuru John Marshall, mhaka yacho yakabva munyongano yezvamatongerwe enyika yeSangano ramapurezidhendi ra1800. William Marbury, pakati pousiku mugadziri akagadzwa waPrezidhendi John Adams, muShonda weHurumende James Madison nokuda kwokukundikana kupa basa rake seruramisiro yorugare. Murangariro waMarshall wakadzivisa nenzira younyanzvi rwisano yakananga nebazu rapurezidhendi mukuru kupfurikidza nokutonga kuti Marrieth sucerose 13 yeChiito chaJudia ya1789 (89) imene yakasadzwa nemhaka yeSangano yaparo yeSangano yaparuzhinji. Munesarusosaidzosaidzosaidzosaidzosa. Munesai 3

  • Bumbiro reMitemo mutemo mukurusa wenyika, unosunga pamapazu ose ehurumende.
  • Vatongi vane chiremera chokududzira Bumbiro reMitemo uye chokuzivisa zviito zveCongress kana kuti kusava nechinhu chapamusoro apo zvinorwisana naro.
  • Simba rokuongorora kutonga ibasa rakaberekwa riripo rematare, rinokosha kuti arambe aine simba repamutemo.

Pamberi paMarbury, matare anoverengeka ehurumende akanga atoshandisa hwirudzuro yedare pamusoro pomutemo wehurumende. Somuenzaniso, mu Commonwealth v. Caton (1782], dare rapamusoro-soro reVirginia rakakarakadza simba rokurerutsa mitemo. Asi kutaura kwakananga kweDare Gurusa reMarbury kwakapa dzidziso simba renyika yose ndokugadza nzvimbo yamazana maviri amakore eGwaramende reJurisprudence.

Pre-Marbury Precedents Nenharo

Pfungwa yokuti matare angagona kubvisa mitemo isina kururama kana kuti isina murairo yakakurukurwa paConvention yeBumbiro reMitemo ra1787. Alexander Hamilton akarangarira mu Fidhalist Nhaka. 78 kuti dare raizova “bazu rengozi" nemhaka yokuti rakanga risina“ simba pamusoro pomunondo kana kuti chikwama.” Hamilton akarangarira matare somuchengeti weBumbiro remitemo, achizivisa kuti apo kuda kwechibvumirano, kwakaziviswa mumirairo yacho, kunomira mukupesana kuti vanhu, kuziviswa muBumbiro remitemo, vatongi vanofanira kudzorwa neridziro yapashure panzvimbo yakare. Ichi chiono hachina kubviswa.

Kushanda Kunoita Kuongorora Kutonga

Kuhwirudzura dare harisi simba rechisarudzo chimwe chete rinoshandiswa nedare riri rose. Rinoshanda kupfurikidza nemiitirowo zvayo yeridziro. Mhaka inofanira kuunzwa nenzira yakafanira.(a panofanira kuva yakamira, nhau yacho inofanira kuva yakaibva, uye kunofanira kuva negakava chairoiro. MaDare anoshandisa miitiro chaiyo apo anohwirudzura kumira kwebumbiro remitemo kana kuti zviito.

Mipimo Yokuhwirudzura

Zvichitsamira parudzi rwomutemo kana kuti chiito, matare anoshandisa mwero yakasiana - siana yokunzvera:

  • Rasal Basis Review: Mupimo unocherekedzwa zvikurusa. Mutemo unofungidzirwa kuva constitution, uye mushori anofanira kuratidza kuti mutemo hauna ukama hunonzwisisika nefariro yehurumende yapamutemo. Ikoku kunoshanda kumitemo mizhinjisa yezvemari nenzanga.
  • Scrutiny: inoshandiswa nokuda kwokuronga kwakavakirwa pavatano kana kuti kusatendeseka. Mutemo unofanira kuva une chokuita zvikuru nefariro inokosha yehurumende.
  • [[FT.0] Scrity Scrutiny: Mupimo wakaoma zvikurusa. Kushandisa mitemo inoremedza maruramiro makuru (sekutaura kwakasununguka kana kuti kuvhota) kana kuti mapoka akavakirwa padzinza, rudzidziso, kana kuti mavambo orudzi. Hurumende inofanira kubvumikisa mutemo kuva fariro inomanikidzira uye inosanogadzirirwa kuuwana.

Iyi mipimo inotungamirira vatongi mukusarudza kana mutemo uchiputsa Bumbiro reMitemo. Haina kukwana, asi inogovera gadziriro yokuita zvisarudzo kunowirirana.

Kuchinja Kunoita Bumbiro Romutemo

Apo dare rehurumende rinonzwa denho yebumbiro remitemo, muitiro wacho unoitika nenzira inotevera:

  1. [[FOLT:0] Kufutisa nePreadings: Mupurisa anofanira kuratidzira kuvadziko chaiyo inoparirwa nomutemo kana kuti chiito chehurumende chinoputsa maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo.
  2. Kufumura uye Ufakazi: Muzvimwe zviitiko, ufakazi pamusoro pedonzo romutemo kana kuti tapuro hunounganidzwa. Nokuda kwedenho dzechiso, dare rinotarisa rugwaro rwomutemo; nokuti sedenho dzinoitwa, runonzvera maidi chaiwo.
  3. Idzo nokupfupikisa: MaPariti anopa zvibvumikiso zvapamutemo achidudza rugwaro rwebumbiro remitemo, muenzaniso, uye mashoko akapoteredza enhau.
  4. [[FOL:0]ral Relation: Vatongi vanopa mhaka yavo pamberi pavatongi, avo vanobvunza mibvunzo inobvunza kunzwisisa nerevo dzerutivi rumwe norumwe.
  5. [ Kurangarira uye Maonere: Vatongi vanosangana kuti vakurukure nhau yacho. Murangariro woruzhinji(o kuwanda) inotsanangura kurangarira. Kupinda nokupesana kwemirangariro kunogovera mirangariro yakasiana.
  6. Mutongo: Kana mutemo ukaputswa, dare rinowanzouzivisa kuva usina chinhu uye usingamanikidzirwi. Mune dzimwe zviitiko, dare ringapa murayiro unorambidza kuchengetwa kana kuti kuvandudza mutemo kupfurikidza ne “kunzvera kwepanguva ino.

Kunokosha kucherekedza kuti hwirudzuro yedare redare harina kuganhurirwa kuDare Rapamusoro. Dare repasi rehurumende nguva dzose rinohwirudzura mutemo, uye zvisarudzo zvaro zvinokwirira. Chisarudzo bedzi cheDare Rapamusorosoro chinoguma kutoti Bumbiro Remitemo rakagadziridzwa kana kuti Dare gare gare richitonga rimene.

Zvisarudzo Zvakachinja America

Dzimwe nyaya dzakawedzera kodzero dzevanhu, dzimwe dzakakundwa nehurumende, uye shomanana dzakatsoropodzwa zvikuru sedzinodarika mwero.

Matambudziko Akatanga Kuitika Kupfuura Pamarbury

  • McCulloch v. Maryland[FLT: 1] (119): Dare rakatsigira kutevedzana kwebumbiro remitemo reChipiri reBank reUnited States, richisimbisa kuti Dare rakareva masimba kupfuura ayo akadonongodzwa zvakajeka (chitsama chakarongwa nechakafanira). Mhaka yacho yakasimbisawo ukuru hwehurumende pamusoro pechiito chehurumende.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (11824): Simba rinodudzira zvikuru reCongress rokudzora kutengeserana kwenyika, richiisa hwaro hwechiremera chehurumende pamusoro pezvemari.
  • Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857): Shando ine ngwavaira yehwirudzuro. Mutongi mukuru Roger Taney akazivisa kuti vagari veAmerica veAfrica vakanga vasiri vagari vemo uye kuti Congress yaisagona kurambidza uranda mundima. Chisarudzo chakapisa kunyanduka kwerudzi uye chakadzorwa nenzira inobudirira neConstantion Amendment Amendments.

Kodzero Dzevagari Vemo Nekusunungurwa

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Zvikurukuru zvakaparadza dzinza muzvikoro zvavose, zvichinyanyokurira dzidziso ye Plassy v. Ferguson [1896]). Chisarudzo chakashandiswa chamagariro avanhu kuratidza kuti iko kudzivirira kwakaenzana.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright[[FL:1] (1963): Akataura kuti Hurumende yechitanhatu inoda kuti pave nemitemo kuvanopomerwa mhaka vasingagoni kubhadhara gweta. Ikoku kwakagadziridzazve gadziriro youtsotsi yeruramisiro.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): Mapurisa anodikanwa kuzivisa vanonyumwira kodzero dzavo kuti varambe vakanyarara uye vanyeverwa. “Miranda nyevero” dzazova itiro guru ramapurisa.
  • Roe v. [773]): Kuziva maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo kubvisa pamuviri pasi peChiteshi cheMitemo chaNineice Claus Expressurence. Mhaka yacho yakamutsa kurukurirano dzezvamatongerwe enyika nedzepamutemo dzinopfuurira. (Note: Roe yakatongwa na Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization[[ muna 20222], ichidzorera nhau yacho kuzvinhu.)
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Kuziviswa kuti roorano yevatano yakafanana imaruramiro anokosha muId4th Amendment, inoda kuti nyika dzose dzipe marezenisi eroorano kuvaroorani vane mitezo mimwe cheteyo yevatano.

Kuparadzana Kwesimba Nekushanda Pamwe Chete

  • United States v. Nixon (1974): Zvikurukuru vakaramba kutaura kwaPurezidhendi Nixon kweropafadzo yapanzvimbo yapamusoro yakakwana, kumumanikidzira kubudisa matepi eWatergate. Chisarudzo chacho chakasimbisa kuti hakuna munhu, kunyange purezidhendi, ari pamusoro pomutemo.
  • Kutora nokupfuudza Bhenishoni yeNdengedzo neKuzviwanisa v. Chadha [19983]: Kuderedza chikwata chemitemo, chishandiso chakashandiswa kushandura zviito zvehurumende. Dare rakaramba kuti veto yakaputsa zvikwaniriso zveBidameralism nezvinodikanwa zveChikamu I.
  • National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius[FLT:] (2012): Akarangarira murairo womunhu oga weChiito cheCare Care Table sechiito chapamutemo chesimba rinotera reCongress, asi chiremera chakaganhurirwa cheCongress pasi peCHECLAS Claus nerelasside pamusoro pewedzero yeMedicaid.

Kutsoropodza Nezvinetso Zvinotevera

Kuhwirudzura rutongeso kunokwezva kutsoropodza kunopfuurira kunobva mumativi ose ezvamatongerwe enyika.

“ Mumiririri Ane Chivimbo Chavanhu Vane Chiviro Chake”

Akatanga ataurwa nenyanzvi yezvemitemo Alexander Bickel, iyi rondedzero yedare inorangarira kuti kuhwirudzura kubvumidza vatongi vasina kusarudzwa kuti vaputse mitemo inoitwa navamiriri vakasarudzwa nehurumende. Muhurumende inosarudzwa navanhu. Muhurumende yehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu, nei magweta mapfumbamwe ari mumhiko dzokupedzisira achifanira kuva nemhinduro pamibvunzo yetsika nezvamatongerwe enyika inomutsa nharo?

Kutonga Kunopesana.

Vatsoropodzi vanowanzopomera matare “magariro emhosva” apo vanoputsa mitemo inoratidza kuda kwakakurumbira kana kuti apo vanovaka kodzero itsva dzebumbiro remitemo. Nenzira yakapesana, “kudzora kwemitemo” kunorumbidzwa apo matare anozviisa pasi pedzimba dzehurumende(kana kuti anoshurikidzwa apo anokundikana kudzivirira mapoka asina dziviriro. Mashoko anowanzoshandiswa. Mashoko akawanda zvikuru anoshandiswa kubvunza kana dare rakatendeka kurugwaro rwemitemo, chimiro, uye muenzaniso, kana kuti riri kuisa zvisarudzo zvaro. [[FLT:]]

Pesvedzero Yezvamatongerwe Enyika Nokusimbisa Hondo

Nemhaka yokuti vatongi vanogadzwa (vatongi vedare nokuda kwoupenyu), muitiro wokusimbisa wave unoumbwa zvikuru. Kuedza kweLiterimus uye kukwidza nokusashanda kwapanzvimbo kwakawedzera, zvikurukuru nokuda kweDare Gurusa. Kuramba kwa2016 kusimbisa Merrick Garland nesimbiso yokukurumidza yaAmy Coney Barrett muna 2020 kunoratidzira kuti simba rehwirudzuro yedare rinoumbwa sei nemiuyo inosarudzwa. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti ikoku kunosekesa chivimbo chavose muSangano yejadicariary. Bva vamwe vanocherekedza kuti hwirudzuro yedare yakagadzirwa chaizvoizvo kunzvera mapazu ezvamatongerwe enyika, uye mwero wakati wepesvedzero yezvamatongerwe enyika mugadziriro haidzivisiki.

Kutsigira Nokudzivisa

Kunyange apo matare anotaura, mirau yawo haiteendi nguva dzose. Dzidziso yechiremera chokutonga (1832), yokuti kududzira kweDare Rapamusorosoro kunobatanidza mamwe mapazu ose neapo akapokanidzwa pamativi akasiyana - siyana. Purezidhendi Andrew Jackson anoshumwa kuti akataura pashure Worcester v. Georgia [1832], “John Marshall akaita chisarudzo chake; zvino ngaaite kuti chitsigire. Muma 1950 na 1960, dzimwe nyika dzinodzivisa mirayiro. Nguva pfupi yapfuura, rondedzero pamusoro pemitemo yehurumende yehurumende ne“ rondedzero yehurumende inotonga” yakaedza miganhuro yechiremera. Dare rimene rakabvuma kuti “kudisa kwaro kwaro kugamuchirwa kwaro kugamuchirwa kwaro nokusagamuchirwa semiteveri inodzoro yemitemo. [Foteveri:] [F.]

Nguva Yemberi Yehwirudzuro Yedare muAmerica Inochinja

Kuongorora zvinhu zvakadai semashandiro anoita nyika yose, uye kuchinja - chinja kwetsika kuchaita kuti matare aone kuti mashoko ekare emitemo anoshanda sei.

Ruzivo Rwokugadzira Zvinhu uye Kuva Woga

Kuongorora kwemadhigirii, zvinobudisa nhau, uye uchenjeri hwokunyepedzera zvinomutsa mibvunzo pamusoro pechirambidzo cheGendement yeChina pakunzvera kusina mufungo nepfari. Dare Gurusa rakatovamba kuchinjira, somu Carpeenter v. United States[ (20208), iyo yaidavira kuti hurumende inowanzoda maruramiro okuwana marekodhi enzvimbo yefoni. Zviitiso zvomunguva yemberi zvingataura nezvokushandiswa kwekuzivikanwa kwechiso, migodhi yemashoko nekambani dzehurumende, uye mwero wemitemo.

Kutarisira Utano Nenhau Dzoupenyu

Pashure pa MaDob, mamiriro emitemo okubvisa pamuviri akakamurwa. Matare ehurumende angadudzira zvino mabumbiro emitemo avo kudzivirira kodzero dzokubereka, uye matare ehurumende achatarisana nemibvunzo pamusoro pokufamba kwenyika, kubvisa pamuviri, uye mishonga yokurapa. Panguva ino, Affordcable Care Act angatarisana nedenho itsva, uye gakava idzva pamusoro pokuzviuraya kubetsera, injinira yemavara emavara okubereka, uye mirairo youtano yavose zvichaedza miganhuro yebasa rakakodzera uye dziviriro yakaenzana.

Ruramisiro Yenzanga Nokusaenzana Kwemarongerwo Ezvinhu

Masangano enzanga akadai seBlack Live Matter na # MeToo akaraira chinjo. Matare angakumbirwa kutaura kwokudzivisa kwourudzi hwegadziriro yetsika mugadziriro yamapurisa, dzimba, uye dzidzo. Kudzivirira Claus neVoting Rights Act kweBumbiro reMitemo kucharamba kuri nzvimbo dzapakati dzehondo. Zvinetso kugerrymaning, mitemo yesarudzo yenhimbe, uye mitemo yemari yenhimbe ichapfuurira kuumba muitiro wezvamatongerwe enyika.

Kuparara Kwenyika Yose

Kuhwirudzura kwokutonga kweAmerica kunobatanidza nenzira inowedzera nomutemo wamarudzi ose nemitemo yamatare okumwe. Dzimwe ruramisiro dzinodudza mienzaniso yokunze mumirangariro yavo (mutoo, mu Roper v. Simmons[], yakarambidza chirango chepwere), nepo vamwe vachiramba ruvimbiko rwakadaro. Sezvo kutengeserana kwepasi rose, zvibvumirano zvamaruramiro avanhu, uye kuchinjika kwemichinjikwa kuchakura, U.S. matare achafanira kudzora kusawirirana pakati pouchangamire hwenyika yose nemiraudzo yamarudzi ose.

Mugumo: Revo Isingaperi Yokuhwirudzura

Kuhwirudzura dare hakusati kuri chishandiso chakakwana kana kuti simba risingaganhurirwi. Iko muitiro webumbiro remitemo unoda kuti pave nokuzvidzora. Kuva kwawo apamutemo kunotsamira pavara rokurangarira kwokutonga, chivimbo chavanhu mumatare, uye kudisa kwamapazu kuwirirana nezvirevo. Apo kushanda zvakanaka, hwirudzuro yedare inodzivirira rusununguko rwomunhu, inochengeta kuparadzana kwemasimba, uye inovimbisa kuti hapana mutambi wehurumende anogona kudarika miganhu yebumbiro-siseko. Kana achiderera Dritts Scott kana [FLT:] [[FLT:]] Klemagtsu. United [FLT] [F:3] [4] [194], iyo inotsigira chiJapan .

Sezvo United States inonangana nedenho itsva, simba rematare rokududzira Bumbiro reMitemo richaramba riri chinhu chinokosha (8) uye kukwikwidzana kwokudzora kwehurumende yehurumende. Kunzwisisa kunokosha nokuda kwomunhu upi noupi anoitira hanya mutemo nokuchengetedzwa kwekodzero dzebumbiro remitemo.