Kodzero Kukutonga Kwakanaka: Chivako Chenheyo Cheruramisiro

Kodzero kukutonga kwakarurama inomira seimwe yedziviriro dzinokosha zvikurusa munzanga ipi neipi yehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu. Inovimbisa kuti munhu ari wose anopomerwa mhaka youtsotsi ane mukana wapachokwadi wokupa dziviriro yavo pamberi pedare risina kupindira, risina kumanikidzwa, tsvete, kana kuti muitiro wokusasarura. Iyi nheyo haisati iriwo mavambo akaisvonaka bedzi; inzvimbo inotsamira pairi chivimbo chavose mutsika yemitemo yehurumende. MuUnited States, kodzero yokutonga kwakarurama inosimbiswa zvikuru muBumbiro remitemo, zvikurukuru kupfurikidza neSikisith Amendement, uye inosimbiswa neRumano rweChibvumirano chamakemite yeChishanu neChishanu. Kunzwisisa hwaro hwaro hwemitemo uye pamutemo zvinokosha kudzivirira sei rusununguko uye kutsigira mutemo.

Kushanduka - shanduka Kwenhau Kwokutonga Kwakarurama

Mavambo EMiddle Ages: Magna Carta uye Mutemo Wapakuvamba Wavose

Murangariro wazvino uno wekutongwa kwakarurama unovambira shure kusvikira ku1215, apo vatongi veEngland vakamanikidzira Mambo John kusaina Magna Carta. Chitsauko 39 chechapupu ichocho chenhau chakazivisa kuti hakuna munhu akasununguka aigona kuiswa mutorongo, kudzingwa, kurambidzwa, kana kuti kutapwa “kunze norutongeso rwapamutemo rwevezera rake kana kuti nomutemo wenyika." Chinyorwa ichi chakaumba pfungwa huru yokuti zviitiko zvapamutemo zvinofanira kutevera mitemo yakagadzwa uye zvinobatanidza rutongeso nomunhu mumwe akaenzana naye. Nepo Magna Carta pakutanga akadzivirira boka duku bedzi ravanhu vakasununguka, nheyo dzacho dzakakudzwa zvishoma nezvishoma kupfuudza dziviriro dzakakura. Mumazana amakore akatevera, mutemo wavose wakakudziridza mifungo yakadaro sokunzwa maruramiro, kurambidza kwokuzvitonga kunoitwa pachena.

Bhuku reEngland Rekodzero Dzevanhu uye Kufurira Nyika Dzake

Glorious Revolution ya1688 yakatungamirira kuChirungu Bill of Rights ya1689, iyo yakaganhurirazve chiremera choumambo uye yakasimbisa chiremera cheparamende. Pakati pegadziriro dzayo paiva nerambidzo yebhedha yakanyanyisa ne “chirango uye zvirango zvechienzi,” zvose zviri zviviri zvakatsigira nenzira isina kunanga mipimo yokutonga kwakarurama. Iyi mifungo yakaenda kunyika dzeAmerica, uko mirau yapakuvamba nemitemo yehurumende yapakuvamba yakavamba kubatanidza zvibvumikiso zvakafanana. Somuenzaniso, Virginia Declaration of Rights of Leaugness ye1776 zvakajeka yakataura kuti “muzinda wose kana kuti muutsotsi hunopomera munhu ane maruramiro okuraira chisakiso nechimiro chake, kuti atarisa navapomeri vezvokutenda, kuti adane nouchapupuri, kuti ade noufakazi hwekare.

Kuumba Bumbiro Remitemo reUnited States neChibvumirano Chekodzero Dzevanhu

Apo Convention yeConstitution yakaitwa muna 1787, chinyorwa chapakuvamba chaiva nedziviriro shomanene dzamaruramiro. Anti-Federalist yakaramba nesimba, ichiomerera papepa rekodzero semamiriro okuda kugadziriswa. Chipikirwa chekugadziriswa chakatungamirira kukugamuchirwa kwezvikarakadzo zveFirst Congress . Sixth Amendment, pamwe chete neFreferament’s System yeCreatement’s Procesting Clausce, zvakava musimboti wekodzero dzokutonga dzakarurama muUnited States. [[FLT:] SS] stand Amend Amend Confectedment yakabudisa zvibvumirano zvitanhatu: mutezo wapamhiti wavose, mutongi asingasarutsiki muhurumende uye purovhinzi, apo utsotsi hwakaitika, chiziviso chezvapupuriro, kukuwanira rudyi, kuti zviwane pamutemo zviwane , zvinoda kubetsera zvakarurama.

Kutevedzerwa kweBumbiro Romutemo muUnited States

Kuchinja Kwechitanhatu Mumashoko Ose

Bhuku reSikisi Remisi Yemisikanzwa rinopa mukana wakakura wokusunga mhosva.

  • Kutonga kwokukurumidza: kunodzivirira mupomerwi pakusungwa kusingaverengeki kusati kwaitwa kutonga uye kunovimbisa kuti ufakazi hahukudzi. Dare Gurusa mu Barker v. Wingo[[[FLT:]] [772] yakatanga nzvero yokudzikamisa inoyera urefu hwokunonoka, chikonzero chokunonoka, kutaura kwomukwiridziridzi, uye fungira mano yakaipa kumukwiridziridzi.
  • Kutonga kwePublic: Kunosimudzira kuoneka nokudzivisa zvinoitika zvakavanzika. Voruzhinji nezvinodhinda kazhinji kazhinji vane maruramiro okupinda miedzo, kunyange zvazvo zvimwe zvinosiya zviripo nokuda kwenhau dzinotapurika.
  • [[FLT: 0] Chikamu chikashatiswa Jury: Chinoda kuti vatongi vasave vanosaiswa mutongo uye vatorwa mumuchinjikwa wenzanga. Voir jazhe rinobvumira magweta kudenha vatongi vanobvira nokuda kwechisakiso kana kuti kupfurikidza nokurovanya.
  • Nounice of Posts: Mupomeri anofanira kuziviswa nezve “chinhu nechisakiso chepomero,” achigonesa kugadzirira dziviriro. Kupa mhaka kwapakarepo kunoputsa iri maruramiro.
  • Kuparidzira Claus: Kunovimbisa maruramiro okutarisana nechapupu chakashata. Mhaka yechiratidzo Crawford v. Washington[ [2004]) yakadzimwa kubvumirwa kwekunzwa kwerevits kutoti murevereri kunze kwokuti muhedheri akasawanikwa uye mukwirirwi akava nomukana wokutanga wekupindwa muchinjikwa.
  • [ Muitiro wokumanikidzira: Mukwirirwi angapupurira pasi pepoena ndokugombedzera chipupuriro chavo. Irworwu maruramiro runokosha kukuvaka dziviriro.
  • Kuratidza zano: Zvichida maruramiro anodokuva anokosha zvikurusa. Mu Gideon v. Wainwright[ (63]), Dare rapamusoro rakataura kuti Dare raifanira kugovera zano kuvakwirirwi vapa mhaka dzakakomba, gare gare dzakatambanudzirwa kumhaka ipi neipi inobatanidza tongero inobvira yomujeri.

Kufambira Mberi Nokutsinhirana Zvinodiwa

Dare reHendreverse reFindromendi rinovimbisa kuti hakuna munhu acha “kuparadzwa kwoupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo.” Dare rapamusoro rakadudzira ichi chitsama chemitemo kuti chide miitiro ine ruramisiro muzvose zviri zviviri utsotsi nemo. I14th Amendment inoshanda kumiitiro inodikanwa kuhurumende, uye kupfurikidza nedzidziso yokusarudza, inenge Pendimende yeSikisi yose zvino inoshanda kukuita zvinhu. Mukuwedzera, Mathes v. Eldridge chirongwa chinoshandiswa kuyera chaita kuti purofiti yechinhu chapamhiro, ngozi yemhoshoo yemhosho, yemhoshoo yehurumende.

Zvikamu Zvemichero Zvekutongwa Kwakanaka

Kufunga Nezvekusava Nemhosva

Kufungidzirwa kwokusava nemhaka inzira yakaisvonaka inoitwa mururamisiro youtsotsi. Kunoreva kuroverera mhaka kunotakura mutoro wokubvumikisa chinhu chiri chose chemhosva pasina panikiro ine mufungo. Uyu mupimo unodzivirira mupomeri pakupwiswa kwakavakirwa panyumwirowo zvayo kana kuti bviro. Kupanikira kune mufungo haisi mutongo unongogumira; idziviriro yakasimba zvikuru inoda kuti vatongi vave nechokwadi mutsika chokuva nemhaka. Matare anorairidza anoramba achirayira kuti mukwiridziridziridzi haafaniri kupa ufakazi hupi nohupi. Kana kupotera kukundikana kusvitsa mutoro wake, muregi anofanira kutevera.

Kodzero Yezano Nebetsero Inobudirira

Kodzero yezano yakura kupfuura kungovapowo zvako kwegweta. Dare Rapamusoro-soro mu Strickland v. Washington [19984] yakatanga kuedza kwamativi maviri ebetsero inoshanda: mukwiridziri anofanira kuratidza kuti kuita kwezano kwakaderera mupimo wedonzo wekuva nomupimo wengwariro uye kuti kuita kusina kururama kunoramba kuri kunozvidza dziviriro. Ikoku kunovimbisa kuti zano harisingori bedzi boka rinodziya mwoyo asi rinogovera mufananidzo wapamutemo. Masangano avose anodzivirira apamutemo, zvisinei, anotarisana nenhau dzisingaperi pasi pemitoro yakakwirira, uko kunogona kusekesa kunaka kwetsika.

Mutongi Nomutongi Asingasaruri

Muiti wechisarudzo asingasaruri anokosha. Vatongi vanofanira kuzvipa mhosva kana vaine mirangariro yavo pachavo kana kuti kuda mari mugumisiro wacho. Vatongi vanofanira kuongororwa kuti vasarudze rusaruro, uye basa rokusarudza rinofanira kuitirwa kubvisa avo vasingagoni kusarudza mhaka yacho paufakazi. dare redare rehurumende rinofanira kugovera nhungamiro dzakadzama kuti vasimbise madziva edare rinoratidzira nzanga. Zviitiso zvikuru zvinoda kuti vatongi vasarumbidze kana kuti vasandutsirirwe nzvimbo kuti vawane vatongi vasingasarumbi.

Kutongwa Kwavose uye Kupfuurira

Kuona chitarisiko kunodzivisa kusazvibata kwedare uye kukanganisa, kunokurudzira zvapupu kuti zviende mberi, uye kudzidzisa vanhu pamusoro pegadziriro yeruramisiro. Dare Gurusa rakaziva kuti dare rehurumende neramapepanhau rine kodzero yeFirst Amendment yokupinda matare outsotsi. Zvikamu zvakasiyana zviripo nokuda kwouchapupu hunobatanidza zvakavanzika zvebhizimisi, chengeteko yenyika, kana kuti zvapupu zvine ngozi, asi kuvharwa hakuwanzoitika uye kunofanira kugadziridzwa zvishoma. Mumakore achangobva kupfuura aya, kukura kwenhau dziri kure mukati mechirakata cheCHOVAID yakamutsa mibvunzo mitsva pamusoro pezvakataro yorutongeso rwavose, nematare anodzikamisa njodzi dzoutano dzinorwisana nevimbiko yemitemo.

Kutongwa Nokudzivirirwa Kunokurumidza

Ruramisiro inononotswa inorambwa. Rwiyo Rwiyo Rusaro runodzivirira mupomerwi kuti asatambure muusungwa hwapamberi pedare uye runosimbisa kuti ufakazi hahusi hwekare. Congress yakabatanidza Dare rePurcey Trial Act ra 1974, ichida kuti kutonga kwehurumende kutange mukati mamazuva 70 okutonga (pasina kusino murairo). Kunonoka kunoparirwa nokukandwa kwedare, kusazvibata zvakanaka kwedare, kana kuti kuzvidzivirira kumene kunoyerwa nokungwarira. Mumatare ehurumende, mipimo yemitemo yemitemo inoshandiswa kupfurikidza ne Barker [[FLT]] kuedza kwokudzikamisa. Kunonoka kusara kunoramba chinetso mumatare omumaguta anona mitoro, kazhinji vanosungirwa kuisa vatongi kuti vasarumbidzire pakati pokumirira kutongwa kana kuti vabvume.

Kutarisana Nokuparadzaniswa Kwemuchinjikwa

Bhaisikopo Claus rinovimbisa maruramiro okuedza kuvimbika kwezvapupu zvakaipa. Kunzvera kwemuchinjikwa kunorangarirwa kuva injini yapamutemo hurusa yati yatangwa nokuda kwokuwanwa kwezvokwadi. Chisarudzo cheDare muna . Charawford v. Washington yakachinja kunzvera kupfurikidza nokunangidzira ngwariro parunyerekupe. Kana muroveredzi achitsvaka kubvuma mashoko akatangira ayo ari echiko, mutengi anofanira kupupurira uye kuva anozviisa pasi pedzidziso iyi, kutoti kana muparadzi akasawanikwa uye mukwirirwi akava nebanza rokutanga rokuyambuka anopinda muremuwe. Nemhaka, 911, uye mapurisa vanobvunzurudza nhau dzose dzakaoma pasi pedzidziso iyi.

Tapuro Yakafara Panzanga

Kodzero dzokutonga dzakarurama dzinoderedza maruramiro enhema dzinovapo bedzi nokuda kwebetsero yavakwirirwi. Dzinobatira fariro dzenzanga yakafara. Apo miedzo inorangarirwa seyakarurama, ruzhinji runovimba negadziriro yeruramisiro, iyo inokurudzira batira pamwe nemitemo nokugamuchirwa kwemitongo. Miedzo yakaisvonaka inoderedza zvitendero zvisina kururama, izvo zvisingangodziviriri bedzi vanhu vasina mhaka asiwo zvinodzivisa vapari vemhosva chaivoivo pakuramba vari panzvimbo huru. [[FL:] project yeINCON] Project yeIntence [[FLM] yasimbisa mazana ezvisarudzo kupfurikidza noufakazi hweDNA, miitiro yakawanda isina kutendeka sechapupuriro isina kururama nerevokureurura. Kusimbisa muedzo kwakananga kwakanangana zvakananga manyuko akadaro echikanganiso. Kuwedzera, kusimudzira mamiriro ezvinhu etsikano yetsika yourombo, kana kuti mamiriro enzanga haasarutsigiridzo inotonga kutongwa pamusoro pese.

Zvinetso Zvinotevera Kukodzero Dzokutonga

Kusvika kumifananidzo yepamutemo

Chinokosha chemireza yokushingaira chinorwisana nouchokwadi hwemahofisi avanhu vose asingatsiviswi. Vakwirirwi vazhinji vanowana betsero yepamutemo yezita, namagweta anokurirwa achikwidziridza mazana enhau. Ikoku kunogona kutungamirira kukudzvinyirira kupomera mhaka kunyange apo dziviriro inoshanda. Nhano dzenguva pfupi, dzakadai se NLADA[ namabasa makuru enyika, donzo rokugadza ganhuriro nokuwedzera kwemitengo, asi fambiro mberi haina kururama. Mune dzimwe nharaunda dzomumaruwa, gadziriro yose inotsamira pamagwetabheti anobhadharwa pamitengo ayo anodzivisa rondedzero yakakwana.

Zvikara Zvedzinza Nezvemari

Pasinei zvapo nebumbiro remitemo vimbiso, fungidziro dzakajeka norudzi runorongeka zvinopfuurira kutapura gadziriro yorutongeso rwoutsotsi. Nzvero dzinoratidza kuti vakwirirwi vaBlack neHispanic vane bviro zvikuru yokuitwa pamberi pokutongwa, kugamuchira mitongo mirefu, uye kutarisana nefungira mano akaipa. Gadziriro yedare redare redare, nepo yakagadzirirwa kubvisa rusaruro, inogona kubvumira kupara mhosva. Chisarudzo cheDare rapamusoro mu Batson v. Kentucky [1986]) inovharwa northiro yorudzi, asi inodzika mipimo inodzivisa. Rosero yemhoshoro yemhoshoro yegwero nokuda kwavatongi navamiriri, pamwe chete nemashoko pamusoro pekudzo.

Pesvedzero Yezvinobudisa Nhau Nekuzivisa

Munhau dzakakwirira, kuziviswa kwenhau kwakapararira kunogona kukuvadza dare redare rinobetsera vatongi. Nhengo dzenzanga dzinosimbisa izvi, sezvo vatongi vangawana tsinhiro inosarura kana kuti ufakazi husingabvumiki. Matare anoshandisa matanho semirairo yegag, kuchinja nzvimbo, majaji akakurirwa, uye kukura kwemichero kuti aderedze rusaruro. Zvisinei, mutsetse pakati pokushuma kwakarurama nerusaruro unoramba uchipesana. Kukwira kwechiteshi chemikoro chepa paIndaneti, apo vapomerwi vanoshurikidzwa pachena pamberi pokutongwa, kunoparira tyisidziro itsva yokusasarura.

Kutonga Vapfuti

Inopfuura 90% yemhosva dzoutsotsi muUnited States inoguma nokukwidziridza panzvimbo pemitongo. Kumanikidzwa kukuru kugamuchira chikumbiro. Zvinowanzoguma nomutongo wakaderera kupfuura kuisa mutongo mungozi kutongwa kwedare redare. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti gadziriro yacho yakamanikidzira vakwirirwi vazhinji vasina mhaka kuva nemhaka, zvikurukuru apo vanotarisana nemirairo duku. Uyezve, kukumbira kupesana hakudzorwi, kunotungamirira kukubvisa mirangariro uye kugona kupomera kudenha. Mamwe magariro zvino anoda kutarisirwa kana kuti kuziviswa kwoufakazi pamberi pokunge chikumbiro chagona kugamuchirwa.

Kugadzirwa Kwezvinhu Nezvirongwa

Ruzivo rwokugadzirwa kwezvinhu runotanga zvose zviri zviviri mikana nenjodzi. Kutongwa kwedare kuri pachena kwakapararira munguva yedenda racho, zvichiwedzera kunetseka pamusoro pekodzero yokutongwa kwevanhu uye kukurukurirana kunobudirira pakati pevakwiridziridziri uye zano. Nepo kuoneka kure kuchigona kuvandudza kushanda zvakanaka, vangaderedzawo kusimba kwedare uye vangaderedza mano evatongi okuongorora mapupurire. Mukuwedzera, kushandiswa kwouchenjeri hwokugadzira mukuongorora zvinhu, maatomu enjodzi, uye kugadzirwa kwezvinowanikwa zvinofanira kuongororwa kuti zvive nechokwadi chokuti vapomedze kutendeka kungapikisa kutendeka kwouchapupu hwakapiwa kwavari.

Maonero Anoita Nyika Yose uye Dziviriro

Dare reNyika Yose paDare ravanhu rinotonga pasina ruramisiro (ICCR) rinonatsa muChikamu 10 cheUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) rinoti: “Munhu ari wose ane kodzero yokuenzana zvakakwana nokutonga zvakanaka uye pachena nedare rakasununguka.” Dare reInternational Paramende on Civil and Politics Rights (ICPR) rinonatsa muChikamu 14, kubatanidza kuvimbisa kwokuenzana pamberi pematare, kusava nemhaka, kudzivirira kuduku, uye kodzero yokukwirira. Kodzero yeEurope pamusoro pekodzero dzevanhu inodzivirirawo kodzero dzokutonga zvakarurama pasi peChikamu 6, neDare reEurope rekodzero dzevanhu rinosimudzira kodzero dzemhosva. Nepo miitiro yakananga inosiyana mumitemo, mipimo yokusasarura, uye kukwanisa kuwanikwa kwayo kwose kunozivikanwa.

mhedziso

Kodzero kukutonga kwakarurama haisati iri nhambo yakare yakare asi nheyo mhenyu inoda kungwarira nguva dzose. Hwaro hwayo hwebumbiro remitemo muSixth Amendment neGuviti yeChiteshi chinonzi Claus hupa gadziriro yakasimba, asi kuzadzika chaikoiko kweruramisiro kunotsamira papfuma dzakakwana, miitiro isina kusiana, uye ruremekedzo nokuda kwedziviriro dzemitemo. Sezvo zvinetso zvitsva zvinomuka (kubva mukusadzivirirwa kwapachena kupesvedzero yemitengo yemitengo yemitengo yetsika) systems inofanira kuchinjika apo isati ichitongova kutadza kuona nharidzano huru: kuvimbisa kuti munhu ari wose anopomerwa mhaka agamuchire mukana wapachokwadi pamberi pokuita chisarudzo chisingatori rutivi. Nokuda kwavadzidzi, vagari vemo, vanonzwisisa idzi kodzero dzokudzivirira mufambiro wenzanga. Mitengo inoyera inoyera yetsika inoyera.