Kutanga: Chisakiso Chokuenzana kweBumbiro reMitemo

Kudzivirira Kunowirirana kweChikamu 1 cheKireath Amendment, chinomira seimwe yegadziriro dzine simba zvikuru nedzinokwikwidza mumutemo weAmerica webumbiro remitemo. Yakasimbiswa muna 1868 mukutevera Hondo yevagari vemo, murayiro wayo wakapfava(w) kuti hapana hurumende icha “kuitira munhu upi noupi ari musimba rayo dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo”.[1] Yazova nheyo yepamutemo yekodzero huru dzose dzevagari vemo dzinofambira mberi muUnited States. Injini yemitemo yakabvisa kusarurana kwedzinza, yakabvisa rusaruro rwechirume, uye yakatambanudza kuenzana roorano kuva varoorani voga voga voga voga. Pasinei zvapo nokupfupika kwayo, chitsakamuranisa chirongwa chayo chedare guru reDare redare repamusoro rehurumende, uye kupfuurira kuumba kodzero dzokuvhoterana pamusoro pekodzero dzokuzvibvumirano, kudzora kusimba kwarodza kusimba kwayo. Kunzwisisa kunoreva kutendeka kwenhau, kuongorora kutevero, kuongorora kuongorora mamiriro anoshanda, kuongorora kuti, kuongorora kuongorora muganhu.

Mugariro Wenhau: Kuvakwazve uye Chipikirwa Chokuenzana

Mutevedzeri weKudzivirira Claus wakaberekwa mukuedza kwerudzi kukundikana neruramisiro yedzinza pashure peHondo yeChiviko. Kubviswa kwouranda kupfurikidza neH13th Amendment (1865) kwakasiya nzvimbo isina chinhu yapamutemo: yaichimbova Conferateate inogadza nokukurumidza “Mitemo Mitema” iyo yakaganhurira zvakakomba kodzero dzavatema vaAfrica vakanga vachangosunungurwa. Mumhinduro, Reconstantion Congress yakanyoresa Indation ye 1450th Amendment, iyo yakatenderwa muna 1868. . Commentandmentment’s’s (varume vakakurumbira saJohn Bingham naSator Jacob Howard) yakagadza dziviriro yeClabel yeChost Regition Regivertivement Act of 18666 uye kugovera vimbisocial Decration mukurwisana nehurumende nehurumende inorwisana nepospoor.

  • Post-Civil Hondo yakapoteredza: Chikamu chamashoko chakarongedzerwa kukurira chisarudzo chine mukurumbira wakaipa cheDare Gurusa mu Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857], chaidavira kuti vanhu vatema vakanga vasiri vagari vemo.
  • Kupfuudza Mabhii Matema: Rakavavarira kudzivisa nyika kubata varanda vachangobva kusunungurwa savagari veboka rechipiri.
  • Kuzivisa kuva mugari worudzi: Chikamu chamashoko chakashanda mukubatanidza neChinutiizishi Clausde kurondedzera kuva mugari wemo uye kuvimbisa kubatwa kwakaenzana.
  • Chipikirwa chisina kururama: Pasinei zvapo nomutauro waro wakakwirira, chitsama chacho chakaparadzwa zvikuru nokuda kwerinenge zana ramakore nokurava kwakaganhurirwa kweDare Gurusa munhau dzakadai se Casess-Imbar [ [1873]) uye Pnecy v. Ferguson [1866], iyo yakatsigira rusaruraganda pasi pedzidziso ya “yosesakaenzana].

Chitsama chacho chakaramba chisisipo kutozosvikira pakati pezana ramakore rechi20, apo sangano rekodzero dzavagari vemo nenhevedzano yezvisarudzo zveDare Gurusa rakamutsidzira donzo raro rapakuvamba.

Rugwaro Rwezvinodzivirira Claus Zvakaenzana: Murayiro Wakapfava Unonyengera

Mutauro wakananga wechikamu chacho ndewokuti: “Hapana Hurumende ichaita kana kuti kusimbisa mutemo upi noupi uchavhara ropafadzo kana kuti kudzivirira vagari vemo veUnited States; uyewo Hurumende ipi neipi haisati ichizonyima munhu upi noupi upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo; kana kuramba munhu upi noupi ari mukati moudzoro wayo dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo.” Mashoko okupedzisira ano "“ dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo” [$(] inheyo yeSangano reFOLD). Inoshanda bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende yehurumende yenyika, kunyange zvazvo Dare Gurusande rakazobatanidza “kudzivirira kwakaenzana pamutemo kupfurikidza nePremitempty derderment in [FFF].[5]

Ndiani “Perezi”?

Chikamu chinotaura chinodzivirira “munhu upi noupi,” kwete vagari vemo chete. Mutauro uyu wakafara wakadudzirwa kubatanidza zvisati zviri zvizvarwa, masangano, uye, mune mamwe mashoko, kunyange vana vasati vaberekwa (kunyange zvazvo Dare risina kuwedzera kuvakwa zvakakwana kuvasati vaberekwa). Kubatanidzwa kwamasangano kwave kuchiwirirana zvikuru, sezvo masangano ebhizimisi akashandisa chitsama chacho kudenha miraudzo yorusaruramisi.

“ Dziviriro Yakanaka ” Inorevei?

Chikamu chamashoko hachidi kuti mitemo yose ibate munhu ari wose zvakafanana; inorambidza rusaruro runosarira kana kuti runosakafanira. Mubvunzo mukuru ndowokuti kusarudzwa kunotorwa nomutemo kunoruramiswa nedonzo repamutemo rehurumende. Nokufamba kwenguva, Dare Rapamusoro rakatanga gadziriro ine zvakawanda yokupindura mubvunzo iwoyo.

Kududzira Kunokosha: Mapfundo Akanyorwa Panyika Akaumba Claus

Nhoroondo yeCompatement Protection Claus inyaya yokuwedzera kwezvimwe zvinhu asi zvakakura.

Rusaruro Rwedzinza

  • [FLT]BN v. Board of Education (1954): Mhaka yedziviriro yakakurumbira zvikurusa. Dare rakabatana raidavira kuti dzinza renyika muzvikoro zvavose rakaputsa mutemo, kuputsa [[FLT:] Pnecry v. Ferguson. Mutongi mukuru Earl Warren akanyora kuti “zvivako zvedzidzo zvamarudzi ose haawirirani.”
  • [FLT] v. Virginia (1967): Mitemo yehurumende inorambidza roorano yemadzinza. Dare rakashandisa nzvero yakakomba ndokusawana donzo rapamutemo rerambidzo dzakadaro, richivaidza kuti “vane vanhu vakasununguka vane masangano anovamba padzidziso yokuenzana.”
  • [FLT][FOLT] [19984] dare rakataura kuti dare raisagona kuramba kodzero yokuchengeta mwana kuna mai nemhaka bedzi yokuti rakaroorazve murume worudzi rwakasiana; shanje yedzinza kupfurikidza namativi echitatu emunhu oga haisi hwaro hunobvumirwa nokuda kwechiito chehurumende.
  • Sangano nokuda kwaFair Adgicts v. Harvard [2023]: Nhau hurusa yenhangemutange. Dare rairangarira kuti mapurogiramu asingazivi dzinza paHarvard neYunivhesiti yeNorth Carolina akaputsa dziviriro yeClassia, zvinoguma nokubudirira chiito mudzidzo yakakwirira.

Rusaruro Rusina Kusarura

  • v. Reed (1971: Mhaka yokutanga umo Dare Gurusa rakaputsa mutemo pamusoro pezvikonzero zvesarura vatano pasi pePuremhetetion Claus. Yakaoresa mutemo waIdaho uyo waipa maruramiro aingodawo zvokuzviitira savatarisiri venzvimbo.
  • [FLT][FOL:1] Craig v. Boren yakagadza mupimo wapakati wenzvero nokuda kwemapoka echirume. Dare rakaputsa mutemo weOklahoma uyo wakabvumira vakadzi kutenga doro rakaderera pazera ramakore 18 asi vaida kuti varume vave namakore 21.
  • [FLT] United States v. Virginia (1996): Dare rairangarira kuti kubvumira kweDare reMissionary rechirume bedzi kwakaputsa mutemo weSundation Claus. Mutongi Ginsburg akanyora kuti nyika inofanira kugovera “ruramiso inonyengetedza zvikuru” nokuda kwemitezo inotsamira pamunhurume.
  • bergefell v. Hodges (2015): nepo yaisarudzwa zvikurukuru pasi peCHENGEDZO , Dare raimirawo pakubata kwaro pazvikonzero zvakafanana zvokudzivirira, kuchivimbisa vakwanyina vevatano imwe cheteyo maruramiro okuroora.

Kutama uye Kugara Munzvimbo Dzakasiyana

  • [FLT] Plyler v. Doe (19982) Dare rakataura kuti Dare harigoni kuramba dzidzo yavose yapachena kuvana vasina kunyorwa. Chisarudzo chacho chakashanda kunzvera kwapakati penhambo nepakati uye chakasimbisa kuvadziko muvanhu vakadzidza.
  • [FLT]]Graham v. Richardson (1971: Kudzorwa kwemitemo yehurumende yairamba betsero dzegarikano kuvagari vemo venguva dzose. Dare rairangarira kuti mipimo yokumwe inofanira kuongororwa zvikuru.

Dzimwe Zviratidzo Zvinodzivirirwa

  • Doroba reCleburne v. Cleburne Living Center (1985): Appending face resc reconstruct asi yakaparadza mutemo wemabhurokwai waitsaura pamisha yemapoka yavanhu vakaremara mundangariro, kuwana aimus panzvimbo pedonzo rapamutemo.
  • [FLT] Romer v. Evans (1996): muganhu weColorado wakadzivisa dziviriro dzapamutemo dzipi nedzipi dzakavakirwa pachimiro chevatano. Dare rakashandisa hwaro hune mufungo asi rakawana mutemo wakasundwa neaimus.
  • bergefell v. Hodges (2015): dziviriro yakaenzana kuvakwanyina vevatano pamusoro peroorano.

Mipimo Yokuhwirudzura: Zvinogadzirwa Zvakabatanidzwa

The Supreme Court has developed three levels of scrutiny to determineKushandiswa kwemitemo inodzivirira Claus kunoenderana nokuti inoshandiswa sei uye kuti inokanganisa sei.

Kunzvera Kwakakomba

Kushandiswa apo mutemo unosarura kwakavakirwa pa “kutsauranisa” (rau, mavambo orudzi, kushata mune dzimwe nharaunda) kana kuti kuremedza“ rudyi rwechienzi” (kufamba, roorano, kufamba kwenyika, kusvika kumatare). Kupukunyuka kusanoongororwa, hurumende inofanira kubvumikisa kuti mutemo unobatira fariro inomanikidzira uye unogadzirirwa zvishoma kuti uwane fariro iyoyo. [FLT:] [FLT] [FFF:3], mitemo inodzorwa kusanosanomiswa nguva dzose. [FLT] V.[FLT]

Kuongorora Kunobatanidza

Inoshandiswa nokuda kwokusarudza vanhukadzi uye, muzvimwe zviitiko, kusatendeseka (vana vasina kuroorwa). Hurumende inofanira kuratidza kuti mutemo unobatira donzo rinokosha rehurumende uye kuti kurongwa kune chokuita zvikuru nokusvitsa chinangwa ichocho. Iyi diviro haimaniki zvikuru kupfuura kunzvera kwakakomba asi kwakaoma zvikuru. Mienzaniso: Craig v. Boren, United States v. Virginia], [[FLT:] PLK]

Kuhwirudzura Kwokuva Nechikonzero Chokuva Nemhaka

Mupimo wakarongwa nokuda kwezvimwe zvikamu zvose (age, hurema, mirau yezvemari, zvinoitika zvevatano zvizhinjisa (kusvikira ] Obergefell). Mutemo unofungidzirwa kuva wapamutemo, uye muiti anofanira kuratidza kuti kurongwa kwacho hakunei nefariro yehurumende yapamutemo. Uku kunyanyova kwemitemo inovapo; kunyange zvakadaro, Dare rashandisa panhambo nenhambo hwaro hwakajekaidzwa ne “mabumbiro emitemo inosundwa ne City yeClecurtus. Clecure Living Center ] uye [FLD][FF]][FFF]]

Kuverenga Kunochinja

Dare rakataura panhambo nenhambo pamirau mitsva inofungidzirwa. Somuenzaniso, mu Obergefell, ruramisiro dzinoverengeka dzakakarakadza kuti chimiro chevatano chingada kusanoongororwa zvikuru, asi Dare harina kutambanudzira zvakajeka mugariro iwoyo kupfuura dzinza nedzinza. Zera neurema zvinoramba zviri pasi pehwaro hune mufungo, kunyange zvazvo Chibvumirano chakagovera dziviriro dzemitemo muNhambo yeChikamu cheMvudzi muAmpty Act uye vaAmerica vane chikwaratiso.

Nhau Dzazvino Uno Nezvinetso

Anopfuura makore 150 pashure pokuitwa kuti ive yandudzwa, Actal Protection Claus inoramba iri musimboti werwisano dzezvamatongerwe enyika nedzemitemo dzeAmerica.

Kupa Kodzero

Chikamu chamashoko chinowanzokumbirwa kudenha mitemo yokuvhota iyo inotapura zvikuru vavhoti vashoma. Mu Shelby County v. Hoker [2013], Dare rakakurira gadziriro huru yeBoogs Act, asi Chisakiso chapamutemo chehurumende, kubvisa mavhota mavhoti, uye kurongedzesa zvirongwa zvedare zvinoramba zvichidenhwa pasi peSult Clause. Dare rinotonga 2019 mu [FLT:] Rucro v. Chisarudzo chinozivikanwa navose chinorangarira kuti gergerman inhau yezvamatongerwe enyika isingahwirukudzorwi nematare ehurumende, asi r r r rGenearderman rinoramba richirangarirwa nokudzorwa kukuru pamusoro pehondo yehondo, uye kupfuutsa kupfuuresa kuzivisa kudzosera kweGenease.

Chiito Chinosimbisa

Chisarudzo 2023 mu Nhevedzano dzaFair Adgings v. Harvard yakagumisa nenzira inobudirira kubvuma kwenhangemutange mudzidzo yakakwirira. Dare raidavira kuti kushandiswa kupi nokupi kwedzinza kunofanira kugutsa nzvero dzakatsiga, uye kuti zvirongwa zvepaHarvard neUNC zvakakundikana kunzvera ikoko. Ichi chisarudzo chakatoparira kupesana nemhindu yezvakasiyana - siyana zvevashandi vebasa uye chakava nenharo pamusoro pokuti Kodzero yoRudziso rweSayere Claus inorambidza chiito chose chehurumende inoziva dzinza, kunyange apo inoshundikaidzwa kupedza rusaruro rwomunguva yakapfuura. Dzimwe nyanzvi dzinotaura kuti chirevo kuti chi “hupo, nepo vamwe vanotobvumira kuti zviito zvedzinza kuti zvive zvakaenzana.

LGBTQ+ Kodzero

[[FLT: 0][FLT]] Wall inovimbisa kuenzana kweroorano, chitsama chedziviriro chakaenzana chinopfuurira kuva chikuru kuhondo pamusoro pekodzero dzokuchinja. Mu Bostock v. Clayton County[[[FLT:]] [2020], Dare rinodudzira musoro weTitle VII kuti ridzivise rusaruro rwakavakirwa pachimiro chevatano nechiratidzo chevatano mumabasa, asi dziviriro yakaenzana ingapa dziviriro dzakakura. Mitengo inoverengeka yakamisa mitemo inorambidza vatambi vatambi vapamitambo yechikoro kana kuti kudzivirira uhuhuremu nokuda kwetarisiro duku; iyi yakatarisana nedenho dzakafanana, nokushandisa mwero yakasiana yecherekedzo. Dare gurusa redare rabvumirana kunzwa [Flkn].[4]

Kutamira Kune Imwe Nyika uye Kunzi Mugari Wemo

Chikamu chemashoko chinodzivirira “munhu upi noupi,” anobatanidza vatami vasina kunyorwa. Plyler v. Doe, Dare rakadzivisa miganhu yokuramba dzidzo kuvana vasina kunyorwa, asi chisarudzo ichocho chingava chakatapurwa kudzorwa nokupiwa voruzhinji vasakarurama. Murangariro wekufamba kwaTrump (wakaiswa mu trump v. Hawaii, 2018]) wakapukunyuka hwirutsungidzirano yakanaka, asi miitiro yomunguva yemberi inonangidzirwa pamaguta anochengetedzwa kana kuti kuganhurira kuva mugari wekodzero younzi unogona kutarisana nokunzvera kukuru. Kana mutengo wacho unoda kuti urange wataura kutemwa wapamutemo vagari vemo vanoshingaira navagari vemo vanoshingaira.

Kuwana Kurapwa

Kukura kweAffordcable Care Act yeMedicaid nokufukidzwa kwemigariro isati yavapo kwakadenhwa pazvikonzero zvakaenzana zvokudzivirira, kunyange zvazvo zvizhinjisa zvakakundikana. misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikuru, kusawirirana mumwero yokufa yavanamai pakati pavakadzi vechiBlack kwakatungamirira kumatare okupomera kuti gadziriro dzehurumende nedzezvoutano dzinoputsa dziviriro yakaenzana kupfurikidza nokukundikana kukurukura urudzi hwetsika. Matare anopesanawo kana kuramba kwedzimwe nyika kukudza Mdidid pasi peA kuchiumba chimiro chorusaruro pavagari vemo vakaderera, kunyange zvazvo Dare kazhinji kazhinji rairangarira kuti purogiramu dzourudzi rwoupfumi dzinova dzinodzorwa bedzi nehwaro.

Mugumisiro: Chipikirwa Chipenyu

Kudzivirira Kukaenzana hausi mutemo wakabatana asi vimbiso mhenyu ine revo yakatanga zvinoshamisa chifo cha1868. Chinovamba sechipikirwa kuvaranda vachangobva kusunungurwa chakatambanudzirwa kuvakadzi, vatami, vana vasina kuroorwa, vanhu vakaremara, uye LGBTQ+ vanhu. Chikamu chetatu chakagadzirwa chokuongorora / denderedzwa, pakati, uye chinonzwisisika ndicho chinoreva kuti dare rinenge rachinja, asi kushandiswa kwemaruvara iwayo kwagara kwaratidza tsika dzakakura uye mamiriro ezvamatongerwe enyika. Nguva yemberi yeDare gurusa ichaumbwa nemapinduriro achaita: Ruvaradzi rwemitemo rwavarafurudavi? Chinoda migumisiro yakaenzana here kana kuti kubatwawo zvakaenzana? Hurumende inogona kutongoronge imhakanyo yevatano yedzinza kana kuti kugadziriswa kwenhau?

Sezvo masangano matsva enzanga anotanga uye kusaenzana kwakare kunopfuurira, Actal Protection Claus icharamba iri nhandare yehondo yemitemo apo vaAmerica vanokwikwidza revo yokuenzana. Nokuda kwavadzidzi, vadzidzisi, uye vagari vemo, vanonzwisisa nhau yaro, marongedzero ayo edzidziso, uye zvikumbiro zvazvino zvinoda kutora rutivi mukurukurirano idzodzo. Mashoko akapfava emitemo (h) anoramba aripo nhasi seakakomba uye achikwikwikwidza.

[[FLT: 0] Kuwedzera kurava, bvunza [[FLT: 1] Chinonyorwa , Oyez] Project [[[FLT:] yemashoko eDare Gurusa, uye hwirudzura rondedzero dzedziviriro dzakaenzana. Njodzi huru: brown v. Board yedzidzo (Jultia)[FT:6], [[FLT:]] United States.[FLT] v [FFF]