Singth Amendment kuUnited States Constitution inovimbisa kodzero yemukwirirwi yezano mumatare. Rugwaro rwacho rwakapfava: “Mumhosva dzose dzoutsotsi, mupomerwi achafarikanya maruramiro ... kuva neKubetsera Kwezano nokuda kwedziviriro yake.” Kubva panhau zhinjisa yeAmerica iyo yakabatira bedzi mumatare eUnited States. Yakatora nhevedzano yezvisarudzo zvechiratidzo zveDare gurusa kuti itambanure ku kupfuudza [ [] .]

Rwendo rwokubva pakodzero yenyika yehurumende rwaingova rune maruramiro ehurumende rwaisakurumidza kana kuti kudzika mitsetse. Rwakabatanidza chinjo huru mukunzwisisa kwakaita Dare ukama pakati peBill of Rights nehurumende, uye rwaida kujekeswa noushingi namagweta navapomeri avo vakaomerera kuti ruramisiro isati ingagona kuva isingapofuri kana mumwe munhu akarwisana nesimba rakazara rehurumende. Kunzwisisa kuvanzwa kweSakisith Amendment kodzero yezano kunoda kunzvera dzidziso yapamutemo yokubatanidza kodzero, nhau dzinonetsa idzo dzakaisunda, uye miuyo inoshanda nokuda kwegadziriro yeruramisiro youtsotsi nhasi.

Dzidziso Yokupesana: Kuita Bhizi Rekodzero Dzenyika

Bill of Rights (kugadziridzwa kwegumi kwokutanga kuBumbiro reMitemo) kwaiitirwa pakuvamba kuganhurira hurumende yehurumende bedzi. Apo Bumbiro reMitemo rakatenderwa, nyika zhinji dzakaomerera pamutemo wekodzero secherekedzo pachiremera chitsva cherudzi, asi hadzina kuona dziviriro idzodzo sedzinosungisa hurumende. Uyu murangariro wakasimbiswa neDare Rapamusorosoro mu Barron v. Baltimore[ [1833], iyo yainoti Bill wekodzero haashandi kumitemo.

Gemendment ye14th Amendment, yakasimbiswa muna 1868, yakachinja mamiriro emitemo. Its Account Process Claus inozivisa kuti hakuna hurumende icha “kudzosera munhu upi noupi woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo.” Mumhaka dzakatevedzana dzenhau dzinotangira kupera kwezana ramakore rechigumi namapfumbamwe, Dare rakavamba kutsanangura kuti“ nhano inotangira . inoumba mamwe egadziriro dzeMarongedzero ekodzero. [[FLT:] [FLD]] [1]. Kuedza kana kuti “chidikaichiidzo kuidzokera kumitemo yeAmerica. Dare harina kubatanidza Bill yekodzero dzose panguva imwe chete. Panzvimbo pezvo rakagamuchira maruramiro erusununguko.

Kodzero yokupa zano yakanga iri mutevedzeri mukuru wokubatanidza. Hapana maruramiro anoratidzika kuva anokosha zvikuru kukutonga kwakarurama kupfuura mano okuita kuti gweta ripe dziviriro yomunhu. Asi kwamakumi amakore Dare rakaramba mutemo unorerekera pajira, richisiya nhau yezano rakapiwa nehurumende kuchisarudzo chehurumende (h) kusvikira nhevedzano yenhau dzakamanikidzirwa.

Pre·Gideon Pragment: Kodzero Yezano Pamberi Pekusawirirana

Dare Repamusorosoro risati ranyoreswa, kodzero yokupa zano mumatare ehurumende yaisiyana zvisina kunaka. Dzimwe nyika dzakapa zano rakagadzwa mumhosva dzose dzemhosva; dzimwe hadzina. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakanga raziva kodzero mumatare ose ehurumende Johnson v. Zerbst [1938], richitaura kuti matare eSikisi aida kuti vaparidzi vapari mhosva vagadzirwe mumhosva dzose kunze kwokunge mukwidzirirwi wacho atadza kuisa pfungwa dzacho.

Dare rakatanga kukurukura nhau yacho mumatare ehurumende mu Powell v. Alabama (1932). Imomo, vechiduku 9 vechiBlack (vakomana) "“ Scottsboro") vakaedzwa nokuda kwokubatwa chibharo uye kutongerwa rufu muAlabama. Vakanga vasina shopu yepamutemo kusvikira mangwanani okutongwa. Dare Rapamusoro rakashandura mvumo, rakabata kuti pasi peGuer Procesment Clause of the 1450 Demendment, hurumende yaifanira kugovera zano muzviitiko zvedzimbahwe umo mukwiridhesi akanga asingakwanisi kuzvidzivirira. [[FLT:] Powell[FLT:] [[FLT]]] yakanga iri chinyorwa, asi chakaganhurirwa: yaishanda bedzi kunhau huru uye kumigariro mikuru bedzi.

Kwamakore makumi matatu akatevera, Dare rakaparapatika kurondedzera ukuru hwechakarurama. Mu Brady [1942], Dare rakaramba kuti Dare raingoda kuti pave nehurumende dzokugadza zano nokuda kwevakwiri vemhosva vasina kutongwa. Panzvimbo pezvo, Dare rakashandisa “mamiriro ezvinhu chaiwo”: kana, mumhaka yacho, kusavapo kwezano kwaizoguma nokutongwa kusina kururama. Mhaka iyi-ka-kafungwa yakaratidza kuva isingashandi. Matare epamusoro akasabvumirana nezvakaitika pazvakanzi“ mamiriro ezvinhu anokosha, uye vakwikwidzwa vakawanda vakaedza pasina magweta.

Nguva Yokuchinja: Gidheoni kana kuti Wainwright

Nyaya yacho yakauya kumusoro Gideon v. Wainwright (1963). Clarence Earl Gidheoni akanga ari murombo, ane mari shomanene aipomerwa kuputsa kamuri redziva muFlorida. Akakumbira dare kumugamuchirira mugweta. Florida bedzi rakagovera zano rakagadzwa nokuda kwemhosva dzemari, naizvozvo chikumbiro chake chakarambwa. Gidheoni akazvimirira amene(*) uye akatongerwa kutongerwa makore mashanu mutorongo.

Kubva mutorongo, Gidheoni akanyoresa chikumbiro chakanyorwa noruoko kuDare Rapamusoro-soro, achitaura kuti maruramiro ake ebumbiro remitemo akanga aputswa. Dare rakapa Dare remitemo rechipfuva checertiori ndokugadza Mutongi wemunguva yemberi Abe Fortas kuti ataure nhau yake. Muuyo wakanga uri chisarudzo chavose pamusoro pe Bratty v. Brady. Mutongo wedare remitemo yetsoropo, munhu upi noupi anoendeswa kudare, uyo ari murombo zvikuru kurovha, haagoni kuvimbiswa muedzo wakarurama kunze kwokunge apiwa zano.[FLT] Dare rakati Dare raSikisiti, rakazivisa kuti: [FLD [FPG] [F] rakaita chibvumirano chorudyi chinoitwa kupfurikidza neGenegatimendement Redgionnerment, risingabvumirwiritisitisitisitisiti dare riri rose.

Gideon kazhinji kazhinji inorondedzerwa sechimwe chezvisarudzo zvinokosha zvikurusa zveDare Gurusa rezana ramakore rechimakumi maviri. Yakachinja kutarisirwa kweruramisiro youtsotsi muUnited States. United States yaifanira kutanga gadziriro dzavose dzokudzivirira kana kuti kuwana dzimwe nzira dzokugovera nadzo magweta nokuda kwavarombo. PaRetrium, negweta, Gidheoni akasunungurwa.

Kuwedzera Kururama: Kupfuura Kufara

Misungo Yakashata Nesiana Yeutsotsi

Pashure pa Gideon, mubvunzo wakatevera wakanga uri kana maruramiro ezano akashandiswa bedzi kunhau dzemhosva. Mitengo yakawanda haisati yagovera magweta nokuda kwemhosva dzinopesana mumhaka dzisina kururama. Mu [[FLT:] Argersinger v. Hamlin[[FLT]] [[3], Dare rapamusoro rakatambanudza mutemo: hakuna munhu angaiswa mutorongo nokuda kwemhosva ipi neipi, kunyange akaronge akarongerwa sechinhu chiduku, kana kuti chikanganiso, kutoti chaipiswa pazano rokutonga. Dare rakarangarira kuti mutsetse pakati pefelon napane tsvina wakanga uri chinhu chisakafanira. Chirango chakanga chiri chinhu chinodikanwa: chirango chirango chikango chikakwanwa chokuiswa mujekerwa.

Asi Dare rakasiya zvakaitika apo mukwirirwi akatongerwa kunguva yejeri yakaregeredzwa kana kuti kutongwa. Alabama v. Shelton [2002] [, Dare rakavhara mukaha iwoyo. Rakarangarira kuti mukwirirwi haagoni kugamuchira mutongo wakaregwa uyo gare gare waigona kupiwa zano anenge apiwa pakutongwa. Kurudyi rwezano runobatanidza kusati kwava bviro chaiyoiyo.

Zvakanyorwa Nerudyi: Zvinotanga Rini?

Gadziriro yeSikisi yekodzero yepangiro haisundiswi pakusungwa. Inobatanidza kutanga kwokutonga kwedare redare ([FLT: 1]). Dare rakajekesa kuti kana nyaya dzatangwa, kutongwa, kupiwa mhaka, mashoko, kana kuti kupiwa mhosva. Ikoko kwakanga kuri kubata Rothgery v. Gillespie County [[FLL]] [2008]. Dare rakajekeswa kuti kana kuti kupiwa zano ratovamba, kodzero yokuisa zano uye hurumende inofanira kugovera magweta mukati menguva inotanhangana. Zvisinei, kururama kupfurikidza nokunyumwiswa kutongerwa kwatototototoitwa. (Fingfishstero inotookanyo yatopiwa.)

Kubatsira Kunobudirira Kwezano: Vara Rinokosha

Kuiswa kwekodzero yezano hakusi kungova negweta chete. Musitanhatu Amendment inovimbisawo betsero inoshanda. Mu Strickland v. Washington [19984] [[FLT]] [1984], Dare Gurusamende rakatanga muedzo wakaitwa wakaipa wekubetsera kwezano. Mupomeri anofanira kuratidza (1) kuti kuita kwezano kwakanga kusina kukwana (kuderera kwechinangwa chokuva nomufungo), uye (2) kuti kusaita zvakanaka kudzivirira kune bviro ine mufungo yokuti, asi nokuda kwezvikanganiso, muuyo wezvibvumirano zvamazano kungava kwakasiana.

Stickland mupimo wakakurumbira unowirirana namagweta anodzivirira. Matare haawanzowaniki zano risingashandi. Kunyanguvezvo, kubvira kwekutaura kwakadaro kunoparira sundo nokuda kwokuva nounyanzvi hushoma uye kunogovera vazhesi yokudzivirira nokuda kwokundikano dzinooneka.

Kubatsira Kwokudzivirira Vanhu Vose Nezvinetso Zvawo

Kubatanidzwa kwekodzero yeSixth Amendment yezano kwakaita kuti pave nokudiwa kukuru kwemabasa epamutemo nokuda kwevarombo.

Bva chipikirwa che Gideon chinoramba chakangozadzikwa bedzi. Gadziriro zhinji dzavadziviriri vavose dzinogara dzichisashandiswa nakare-kare-kare. Zviratidzo zvinopfuura zvikuru ganhuriro dzinorumbidzwa. Somuuyo, vakwirirwi vangasagamuchira ratidziro inoshanda zvirokwazvo. American Bar Association namamwe masangano akanyora zvinyorwa zvemitemo, kubatanidza nguva refu yakamirira nokuda kwezano, zviwiro zvokunzvera zvisina kukwana, uye dzvinyiriro yokureverera mhaka nokukurumidza. Mune dzimwe zviremera, vadzivisi vevo veruzhinji vanobata mazana enhau dzefelon gore rimwe nerimwe, vachiita kuti kuve kusingabviri kupa ngwariro ine revo.

Dare Rapamusoro zvikurusa rakaziva kuti kunyanyowandirwa kwemhosva kunogona kuputsa kodzero yebetsero inobudirira, asi kusimbisa maruramiro iwayo kwakaoma. Zvinetso zvikurusa zvinodenha kuperevedza kwegadziriro yose, uye matare kazhinji kazhinji anozengurira kudzongonyedza nzira iyo hurumende dzinogovera nayo zvinhu. Muuyo igadziriro yeruramisiro iyo, nepo ichivimbisa nenzira yakarongwa zano, kazhinji kazhinji inogovera zano muzita bedzi.

Kunyange zvakadaro, kukwidza kwakwidza uriri. Pamberi pa Gideon, vakwirirwi vazhinji vakanga vasina kana gweta. Pashure pa Gideon[, hurumende iri yose inofanira kugovera gweta nokuda kwomupomeri upi noupi anotarisana nokuiswa mutorongo. Kurwa zvino ndokwevavava nani uye nokuda kwokuwana kwakaenzana namarudzi ose epomero.

Mimwe Mitemo Yamaruramiro Okupa Zano

Kodzero Yokusarudza Zano Newaiver

Dare rechitanhatu Remisi yeMitemo rinopawo vakwirirwi maruramiro okuchengeta zano rechisarudzo chavo kana vachikwanisa kuriwana, uye maruramiro okuparadza zano chose chose ndokuzvimirira vamene (sepo muparadzi achiziva, akangwara, uye anozvipira). Dare rakatsigira kuti kuzvimirira amene maruramiro mu Horetta v. California (1975, rinorangarira kuti maruramiro ezano anobatanidza maruramiro okuramba zano uye kupfuurira.

Kodzero Yezano Pakukwirira

Kubatanidzwa kwamaruramiro ezano kunotambanukira bedzi kukwirira kwokutanga sekwakarurama. Mu Douglas v. California [1963], Dare rakataura kuti hurumende dzinofanira kugovera zano nokuda kwavakwirirwi vanopomerwa pachikumbiro chavo chokutanga chakananga. Zvisinei, Dare rakarangarira kuti hakuna maruramiro emitemo okupa zano nokuda kwokukumbira kwapachisarudzo kana kuti zvikumbiro zvedare gurusa.

Mugumisiro: Nhaka Yokusarura

Kubatanidzwa kweTsamba yeTsvenement yechitanhatu kodzero yezano kunomira sechimwe chezviitwa zvikuru zvemutemo weAmerica webumbiro remitemo. Yakachinja vimbiso yokuti yakamboshandiswa bedzi mudare rehurumende kuva mupimo worudzi nokuda kwenhau dzoutsotsi. Kupfurikidza nezvisarudzo zvakaita se Gideon v. Wainwr, [[FLT]] Argergerer v. Hamlin , uye [[FLT] .FLT] .GELE .Fillespie County[FLT: 5,], Dare guru rakaziva muedzo usina gweta.

Muitiro wokubatanidza hauna kukwaniswa. Kunyange zvazvo rudyi rwetsika zvino rwakabatanidzwa zvizere, maruramiro anoshanda anoramba asina kufanira. Kupesana kwemanyuko, kuremedza mhaka, uye kusakendenga kwezvamatongerwe enyika zvinopfuurira kusekesa nharidzano yeruramisiro yakaenzana. Asi hwaro hwebumbiro remitemo hwakasimba. Nyika ipi neipi inoedza kunyima mukwirirwi asingachinji wezano ichawana zviito zvaro zvichiparadzwa.

Kubatanidzwa kweSikisi Amendment yechitanhatu kunobatirawo somuenzaniso wokuti zvimwe Zvibvumirano zvekodzero dzemunhu zvakashandiswa sei kunyika.Inoratidza simba reKill of Rights Amendment ye14 kuvimbisa kuti kodzero dzinokosha hadzisingori kodzerowo zvadzo dzomugariro wepasi asi ikodzero yemunhu wose wokuAmerica. Kodzero yokupa zano ndiyo inoita kuti dzimwe kodzero dzose dzokutongwa dzive nerevo. Kupinza kwadzo mutemo wenyika yakanga iri nguva yokuchinja (8) uye basa rokuziva zvizere maruramiro acho rinopfuurira.

[[[Nhamba: 0] Revospectal:[