Kutanga: Chiteshi Chomutemo Chokutonga Kwehurumende Inosarudzwa Navanhu

Kuhwirudzura dare kunomira sechimwe chemativi ane simba zvikurusa uye anokakavadzana egadziriro yemitemo yeAmerica. Iro inzira iyo matare (*) zvikurukuru Dare Rapamusorosoro reUnited States(dermine kana mitemo, zviito zvokutungamirira, uye miitiro yehurumende zvichiwirirana neBumbiro remitemo. Iri chiremera, kunyange zvazvo pasina parinongedzerwa zvakajeka murugwaro rweMitemo yemitemo, chazova chenjero inokosha pasimba remitemo nerevakuru vakuru vehurumende. Pasina kuhwirudzura kwokutonga, Bumbiro remitemo ringava remakwa senheyowo zvaro pane kuisa mutemo mukuru unosungirirwa. Muhurumende inotonga miganhu, umo ruzhinji runofanira kudzikaniswa pakodzero neganhuriro, kunzvera kusimbisa kuti hapana bazi rehurumende rinopfuura miganhu yakatangwa nechinyorwa chokuvamba.

Dzidziso yacho inoshanda sechinhu chinokosha chomutemo, ichigombedzera vatambi vose vehurumende kuita mumiganhu yebumbiro remitemo. Apo dare rinoputsa mutemo kana kuti kuderedza murairo wehurumende, harisi kubvuta kuda kwehurumende yehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu asi kusimbisa chinhu chinokosha icho vanhu vamene vakatendera. Iyi rondedzero inonzvera mavambo, vagadziri, uye revo inopfuurira yenzvero yedare, kunzvera kwaro renhau, kuitwa neDare Rapamusorosoro, ukama hwaro nerondedzero yedemocratic, uye denho dzapanguva ino zvinoedza kuva kwayo yapamutemo.

Chii Chiri Kuhwirudzurwa Kwokutonga?

Pamavambo payo, dare rinonzvera isimba redare rokuhwirudzura kumira kwebumbiro remitemo, mirau, uye zviito zvapamutemo. MuUnited States, iri simba rinoshanda kumabasa eCongress, masangano ehurumende, uye bazi guru pamwero yose iri miviri yehurumende nehurumende. Apo dare rinowana kuti mutemo unoputsa Bumbiro remitemo, rinozivisa mutemo usati uri rezinesi rematare rokutsiva zvisarudzo zvawo zvamasangano nokuda kwaavo vakasarudzwa navakuru vakuru vakuru vakuru; panzvimbo pezvo, chiremera chakaganhurirwa kuvimbisa kuti chiito chehurumende chinogara mukati mepuko yemitemo.

Marudzi Okuhwirudzura

Kuhwirudzura dare kunogona kunzwisiswa mumashoko maviri makuru: hwirudzuro yemasangano uye [FLT]] hwirudzuro youdzori hwemitemo [. Kuhwirudzura kwebumbiro remitemo kunobatanidza kuyera kana mirau yemitemo, kana kuti zviratidzo zvevakuru vakuru zvichiwirirana neBumbiro remitemo. Kuhwirudzura, nokupesana, kuyera kana mabasa esangano achiwirirana nemiraudzo inoabvumira kuva miraudzo inotenderwa [[FLT:]] pfungwa inowanzonongedzerwa se [[FLT:]] Nhevron inorevererwa [[FL:] pashure pezvikamu] pamutemo zvapamutemo.[FLCK: 6.]

Kukura Neganhuriro Zvokuhwirudzura

Simba rehwirudzuro yedare harina kuganhurirwa. Matare anomanikidzirwa nedzidziso dzakadai se kumira (chinodikanwa chokuti panofanira kuva nekuvadziko yekondi kuti paudze nhau), kuoma [[[FLT]] [[FLT]] [imhosva inofanira kuva yakagadzirira kutongwa, uye [[FLT:]] kukuva nechakaipa [[FLT]] (mhaka yacho] inofanira kuramba iripo). Kuwedzera, matare anoshandisa [[FLT]] dzidziso yechineidzo yechinetso chenhau [[FLT] , kuramba kusarudza nhau dzakaitwa nenzira yemapatongerwe enyika samapazuro emapazuro enyika kana kuti zvisarudzodzore. Idzi dzinosimbisa matare zvaapo dzakafanira kusimbisa kuti zvisarutsiriso zvakako.

Historical Context: Kubva kuColonical Charters kusvika kuMarbury v. Madison

Pfungwa yokuti matare angagona kushayisa simba mitemo inopesana nebumbiro remitemo remitemo reAmerica risati ratanga. Sir Edward Coke, mu Dr. Case yeBonham [1610] [1610], yakataura kuti “kana chiito cheparamende chikapesana nekodzero imwe cheteyo nemufungo, mutemo wavose uchaidzora.” Nepo murangariro waCoke wakanga usingatsiki muEngland, wakapesvedzera kufunga kweAmerica. Matare ehurumende apakuvamba aidzora mitemo yaiputsa mitemo yomutemo, achitanga tsika yokutarisira.

Kutangwa kwakakwana kwehwirudzuro yedare pamwero wehurumende kwakauya Marbury v. Madison [1803]. Muchinoitika ichocho, William Marbury, pakati pousiku mugadzwa waPrezidhendi John Adams anofamba, akatsvaka mutongo wemandamus kumanikidza Munyori weHurumende James Madson kuti ape basa rake. Mutongi John Marshall, anonyora nokuda kweDare, akatarisana nechinetso chezvamatongerwe enyika: kutonga Marbury aizokoka kusateerera mukuru mukuru; kutonga kwaari kunganetesa mujudicary. Ungwa hwaMarhris akanga ari kutonge achinzi ane kodzero yebasa rake, Dare harigoni kubudisa writi nemhaka yemitemo inopa Dare rapakuvamba muzvinoitika zvakadaro JSciary Chibvumirano chamakore 13849 pacharo chaMassupwidention, naizvozvo chiziviso chiziviso cheSarusaidzo chaMasporitirome.

Kubva kuMarbury v. Madison

  • Bumbiro reBumbiro reMitemo mutemo mukurusa wenyika, uye mutemo upi noupi unonyangadza kwariri hauna chinhu.
  • Ibasa redare rinobetsera vatongi kududzira Bumbiro reMitemo uye kuramba kuchengetwa kwemitemo isina kutongwa.
  • Kuhwirudzura kutonga kunogovera nzvero yokutsoropodza pasimba romutemo, kuvimbisa kuti Dare haripfuuri chiremera charo chinorongwa.

Pashure pa Marbury, Dare Rapamusoro-soro rakanga richinonoka kushandisa simba raro idzva. Harina kuparadza mumwe mutemo wehurumende kutozosvikira Dred Scott v. Sandford [1857] [ichisarudzo chine ngwavaira chakabvisa kusagadzikana kweMissouri uye kudzikamiswa kwemativi. Kunyange zvakadaro, nheyo yacho yakanga yakasimbiswa zvakasimba, uye pashure peHondo yevagari vemo, Dare rakashandisa hwirudzura kuumba nyika yemitemo.

Basa Redare Rapamusoro Zvikuru Muhwirudzuro Yazvino Uno

Dare repamusorosoro rinotonga panzvimbo huru yedare redare rehurumende. Gore roga roga, rinogamuchira zvikumbiro zvinosvika 7 000 kusvika ku8 000 zvokukumbira kuti pave nenyaya dzecertiorari, asi rinobvumirana nokungonzwa nyaya 80 chete. Dare racho rinongoumba nyaya dzinomutsa mibvunzo inokosha kana kuti kurwisana kwepamutemo pakati pematare epasi. Izvi zvinovimbisa kuti Dare rinofanira kuisa pfungwa panhau dzine chokuita norudzi rwakafara.

Kana Dare rangobvuma nhau, kazhinji kazhinji rinogamuchira cumiae (shamwari yedare) mipfupi yakabva kumativi anofarira(academic masangano erusununguko rwavagari vemo, mabhizimisi, uye masangano ehurumende. Idzi rondedzero pfupi dzinogovera ruramisiro nenharo dzokuwedzera namashoko okuwedzera, kuwedzera nzwisiso yeDare yetapuro dzinobvira dzezvisarudzo zvaro. Pashure pekurukurirano yomuromo nemusangano womukati, Dare rinopa murangariro wakanyorwa uyo unova mutevero mukurusa yose.

Nyaya Dzakanyanya Kukosha Dzedare Dzinoratidza Kuongorora Kutonga

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) - Unit shooka zvikuru kuti dzinza muzvikoro zvavose rakaputsa dziviriro yakaenzana yaClaus, richiputsa dzidziso ye “yakapesana asi yakaenzana” ye Plasv. Ferguson [1896].
  • Roe v. [773]) – Akaziva maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo romukadzi kuva oga pasi peChirongwa chaClaus, kubatanidza chisarudzo chokugumisa pamuviri. (Pakare pakavhurwa [[FLT:]] Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization mu20222].)
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Yakaitwa varoorani ivavo vane maruramiro makuru okuroora muPrefence yechi14.
  • United States v. Nixon (1974) – kutaura kwaPrezidhendi Richard Nixon kweropafadzo yapanzvimbo yapamusoro yakakwana, kuchiraira kubudiswa kwamatepi eWatergate.

Chimwe nechimwe chezvisarudzo izvi chinoratidza kuti kuongorora kwokutonga kungadzivirira sei kodzero dzevanhu, kumanikidza kuti dzisave nenzvimbo, uye dzimwe nguva, kubvisa miitiro yenzanga yakadzika midzi.

Kuongorora Kutonga uye Kutsigira Kwehurumende

Kuhwirudzura dare kunopa rwisano inogarisa mumufungo wehurumende yehurumende yeruzhinji: vatongi vasingadiwi, vanobatira nokuda kwoupenyu, mitemo inopfuudzwa navamiriri vakasarudzwa nehurumende here? Ichochi chinozivikanwa sechinetso chezvokutonga , shoko rakatangwa nenyanzvi yemitemo yehurumende Alexander Bickel. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti apo matare anoputsa mutemo wakakurumbira, vanokurira kuda kworuzhinji. Vatsigiri vanodzivisa kuti Bumbiro reMitemo rimene igwaro guru iro rinoisa maruramiro akati kupfuura kusvika kumitengo mikuru yechinguvana, uye kuti pasina hwirudzuraniso yedare, voruzhinji vangadzivisa maruramiro akakurumbira.

Makepi Nedzikamo Zvinoshandiswa

Gadziriro yecheki nedzikamo haisati iri bedzi pamusoro pehwirudzuro yedare. uye Congress inogona kupindura kuchisarudzo cheDare Rapamusoro kupfurikidza nokuchinja Bumbiro reMitemo (muitiro usingawanzoitwi nowakaoma) kana kuti kupfurikidza nokupfuudza mutemo mutsva uyo unokurukura itiro reDare. Bazu roukuru rinomanikidzira (kana kuti pane dzimwe nguva rinoramba) miraudzo yadare. Uye simba rapurezidhendi rokusatonga rinogona kuva nechokwadi chokuti mutongi ari, nokufamba kwenguva yakati, anogamuchira miuyo inosarudzwa. Gadziro inoshanda nokudaro mukati mewebhuro yokudzora kwavose, kwete sedangori yoga.

Kuvimba Kworuzhinji Nomutemo Wokutonga

Kutonga kunokosha kana vanhu vakaona Dare serisingasaruri, rine mipimo yemitemo, uye rinoda kuita kuti dare risabvumira kunyange pfungwa dzakakurumbira, zvisarudzo zvaro zvine simba retsika nerevo. Zvisinei, kuongorora kwenguva pfupi yapfuura kunoratidza kuderera kwechivimbo, zvikurukuru kutevera zvisarudzo zvenharo pamusoro pokubvisa pamuviri, maruramiro okupfura pfuti, uye rusununguko rwechitendero. Kuchengeta chivimbo kunoda kuti Dare risave nemhosva, rionekwe nenzira yapamutemo pane kurangarira pfungwa dzakakurumbira, zvisarudzo zvaro zvine chokuita netsika dzakanaka nezvinoshanda.

Zvinetso Zvenguva Ino Kuhwirudzurwa Kwokutonga

Kuhwirudzurwa kwedare muzana ramakore rechimakumi maviri namaviri kunotarisana nedzvinyiriro dzinoedza ushingi hwayo. Kusimbiswa kwezvamatongerwe enyika kwakawedzera mutoo wokusimbisa nawo vatongi vehurumende, kuchishandura Dare kuva nzvimbo yehondo pamusoro pouzivi hwokutonga. Dare guru rinopfuudza kazhinji kazhinji zvino rinonyandura kukamukana kukuru kwemapoka, kuchisekesa murangariro wokuti vatongi vari pamusoro pezvamatongerwe enyika.

Kukanganiswa Kunoitwa Mafungiro Evanhu

Nepo matare akazvimirira nenzira yapamutemo, murangariro wavose unogona kutapura kurangarira mukuita chisarudzo chedare, zvikurukuru mumhaka umo Dare rakasanokamuraniswa. Nzvero dzinokarakadza kuti Dare pane dzimwe nguva rinotevera majana mumurangariro wavose kudzivisa njodzi dzapamutemo. Somuenzaniso, chinjo inokurumidza mukugamuchirwa kwenzanga kweroorano imwe cheteyo pakati pama 1990 nama 2010 sezvingabvira yakapesvedzera kurangarira mu Obergefell[[. Pane ngozi kuti Dare ringanyanyodavirira kuchadavidza, richideredza basa raro somuchengeti wekodzero dzemitemo.

Kuchinja Kwezvamatongerwe Enyika Nedare

Sezvo vabatanidzwa vezvamatongerwe enyika vakaoma, kusimbiswa nokusimbiswa kwevatongi veDare Rapamusoro kwazova kunopesana zvikuru. Kuramba kwa2016 kugamuchidza mhaka Merrick Garland, kuchiteverwa nokusimbiswa kwokukurumidza kwaAmy Coney Barrett muna 2020, pomero dzakawedzerwa dzokuti Dare ikodzerowo zvayo yezvamatongerwe enyika inopesana. Uku kutyisidzira kuva pamutemo kweDare uye kunomutsa mibvunzo inotambudza pamusoro pokugara kwenguva refu kwehwirudzura kwedare: kana Dare rikarangarirwa somutambi wezvamatongerwe enyika, vanhu vachapfuurira kuteerera murairo here? Dare racho pacharo rimene riri pamutanhiko?

Kuparwa Kwematare Nokugadziridza Zvinhu

Vamwe vatsigiri vanofambira mberi, vakakanganisika nokurembera kusingachinji kweDare kunotevera kugadza kweTrump, vakaraira kufutunura nhamba yemitemo − muitiro unozivikanwa sedare rokurongedza. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti chiito chakadaro chingaita kuti Dare risagadziridze nokunyandura kukura apo simba rinochinja maoko. Vamwe vanokarakadza chinjo dzine mwero zvikuru, dzakadai sokutanga gadziriro inowirirana yetsika nokuda kweruramisiro kana kuti kutanga tsika yemiganhu yegore rechi 18 rinochinjika. Idzi kurukurirano dzinosimbisa kuva norupfaviso rwegadziriro dzedare, idzo dzinomira patsika panzvimbo porugwaro rwemitemo.

Nguva Yemberi Yokuhwirudzura

Nguva yemberi yehwirudzuro yedare ichaumbwa nezvose zviri zviviri zviri mukati nekunze. Muviri, kuumbwa kwepfungwa kweDare kuchasarudza kuti rinorondedzera sei Bumbiro remitemo (pangava kupfurikidza nedzidziso yapakuvamba, magariro emitemo, kana kuti mutoo wakati. Kunze kwezvo, dzvinyiriro yezvamatongerwe enyika, chivimbo chavanhu, uye chinjo dzinobvira dzichaedza kuvandudzwa kwejaji sesangano.

Kuchinja Kunobvira Kunosimbisa Mufundisi

  • Miganhu yemitemo yeDare Rapamusoro-soro. Pari zvino, upenyu hunovimbiswa pasi peChikamu III. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti ganhuriro dzeshoko dzingaderedza njodzi dzekunatsa kumwe nokumwe, kubvisa bvumirano, uye kuva nechokwadi chokuchinja kwenguva dzose. Mitemo inovambira pamakore 18 okusachinja kusundidzira kugadza makore maviri ari ose.
  • Kukudza nhamba yeruramisiro. Padzinenge dzichiitirana nharo, dzimwe nyanzvi dzemitemo dzinotsigira kuwedzera zvigaro kuti dzideredze pesvedzero yegadziriro ipi neipi. Zvisinei, idzi ngozi dzinoparira kukura kwokukunda.
  • [ Kujeka kukuru mumitemo yokutonga.[[FLT: 1] Congress ingagona kuraira Dare kugamuchira bumbiro remitemo rinosunga, kubatanidza kuziviswa kwezvisarudzo zvechakaipa nefariro dzemari.
  • [ Dzidzo yavose pamusoro pedare redare. Purogiramu dzedzidzo dzeCUVI dzinotsanangura basa nomuitiro wokuhwirudzura dare zvinogona kusimbisa kuva pamutemo uye kusimudzira hurukuro yavose yakaziviswa zvikuru.

Kubudirira kwokupedzisira kwekuongorora kunotsamira pakuzvipira pamwe chete kukutonga kunoitwa nedare uye kuda kugamuchira chiremera cheDare kunyange kana zvisarudzo zvaro zvisingafarirwi.

Mugumisiro: Kuongorora Kuwana Simba

Kuhwirudzura dare redare redare redzimhosva hakusati kuri chinhu chichangobva kusiiwa chenyika yapakuvamba. Muitiro unoshamisa, unokwikwidzanwa, uye unokosha uyo unochinjira sezvo mibvunzo mitsva yemitemo nemigariro yenzanga inomuka. Kubva [[FLT: 0] Marbury v. Madison kushoko razvino uno, Dare rakashandisa simba raro kuumba upenyu hweAmerica, kudzivirira maruramiro echizvarwa chenyika, kutsanangura ganhuriro dzehurumende, uye kusimbisa kuparadza masimba. Idi chairo iro kurukurirano yedare inokakavanwa uye inodenha chiratidzo choukoshina. Muhurumende yedemocracy, hapana simba rinofanira kurambwa, kunyange kutorerwa simba rematare. Bva, murairo unorasikirwa namano awo, uye kodzero dzawo dzingava dzinova dzinova dzinova dzinova dzinova dzinotapunzirwa.

Sezvo rudzi runopfuurira kufambira mberi, kuchengeta kuva pamutemo nokushanda kwehwirudzuro inotonga kuchada kungwarira kubva kumabazu ose ehurumende uye kuvagari vemo vanoshumira. Nokuda kwokuravazve pamusoro penhau yehwirudzuro, ona Marbury v. Madison nhau pa [[FLT:] pa [FLT] pa [[FLT], kana kuti kunzvera [[FLT]] Chipotongedzo chenhau chesimba redare muBiblic Congress. Mirangariro yenhau pamusoro pe [[5] yeP] mamiriro ezvinhu enhau pamusoro pechipo paFoctritariantria iripo muBerreat , , murairo unopa muganhu weSangano reRemocractic , apo dare reSarserometic Conservey]