Mamiriro Ezvinhu Akaita Zvinhu Ainge Akodzera Kuitika

Nheyo yomuitiro wakafanira yakavakirwa zvikuru mugamuchidzanwa remitemo reBritain neAmerica, ichitevera mavambo ayo kuMagna Carta ya1215. Claus 39 yechata iyoyo yakazivisa kuti hakuna munhu akasununguka achatapwa, kuiswa mutorongo, kana kuti kudzingwa kunze kwerutongeso rwapamutemo rwevezera rake kana kuti nomutemo wenyika. Uku kuumbwa kwapakuvamba kwakavamba pfungwa huru yokuti simba rehurumende pavanhu vamwe navamwe rinofanira kushandiswa mukuwirirana nemitemo yakagadzwa yapamutemo, kwete kuda kwoumambo kwoudzori.

Kwamazana amakore, mutemo wavose weEngland wakanatsiridza idzi dziviriro kupfurikidza nehabeas corpus, maruramiro kukutonga kwedare rinobetsera vatongi, uye kurambidzwa kwokuzviparadzanisa. Apo vaFramers vakaronga United States Constitution, vakaisa muitiro wakafanira muFindfet Amendment, yakatenderwa muna 1791, iyo inopa kuti munhu asave "akapiwa upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo." Ikoku pakuvamba kwakashanda bedzi kuhurumende yeChizvarwa chavagari vemo, Ireveth Amend Amend, yatendera muna 1868, yatambanurira chinodikanwa chimwe chetecho kuhurumende, ichiita muitiro wehuro yehuro yemitemo yeAmerica.

Revo yomuitiro wakafanira yachinja zvikuru kupfurikidza nedudziro yedare. Pakutanga, matare akanangidzira ngwariro pakutaura zvakarurama kwetsika — achivimbisa kuti vanhu vanogamuchira ziviso nokutongwa pamberi pechiito chehurumende. Nokufamba kwenguva, Dare Rapamusoro rakazivawo nzvimbo duku, richidzivirira maruramiro akati okunokosha mudzongonyedzo dzehurumende pasinei zvapo nemiitiro inoshandiswa. Uku kuumbwa kuviri kunopfuurira kuumba gakava rapamutemo nhasi.

Marudzi Egadziriro Yakafanira

Kurongwa Kunofanira Kuitwa

Zviratidzo chaizvoizvo zvinobvunza: Miitiroi inofanira kutevera hurumende isati yanyima munhu upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti chinhu? Zvidukusa, Bumbiro reMitemo rinoda kuziviswa nebanza rokunzwiwa. Asi zvinodikanwa chaizvoizvo zvinosiana zvichitsamira pamashoko akapoteredza. Dare Gurusa mu Mathes v. Elditridge [[[FLT]] [7776] kuisa kuedzwa kune mwero kunoyera zvinhu zvitatu: fariro yomunhu oga inotapurwa, ngozi yokunyimwa zvikanganiso mumiitiro iripo, uye fariro yehurumende (kubatanidza miraudzo yemari nemitoro). Ikoku kunochinjika kunoreva kuti muedzo wakazara ungadikanwa nokuda kwemhosva, nepo kunzwa kwakakwana kunenge kuringana kubetsera kubetsera budiriro.

Muitiro wakafanira unoshanda mumigariro yakawanda: kutonga kwoutsotsi (maruramiro ezano, rwisano yapupu, vatongi vasingasaruri), kutonga kwehurumende (betsero dzinopesana, Social Security), kubviswa kwebasa nokuda kwavashandi vavose, uye chirango chavadzidzi muzvikoro zvavose. Chinodikanwa chikuru ndechokuti hurumende iite nenzira yakarurama uye igovere mukana une revo nokuda kwomunhu wacho kuti akwikwidze chiito chacho.

Gadziriro Inokosha Inofanira Kuitwa

Muitiro wakafanira wechinosarudzwa unobvunza, kuti: Kune maruramiro akati okuti anokosha zvikuru here zvokuti hurumende haigoni kuvadzosa, kunyange nemiitiro yakakwana? Iyi dzidziso yave ichimutsa nharo asi inoramba iri inokosha. Mu Griswold v. Connecticut[[[FL:1]] (1965), Dare Rapamusoro rakaziva kodzero yokuva voga kweroorano, kurova chirambidzo pakuvandika. Roe v. [[FLT][FLT][12:3] [73]) rakashandisa uku kurangarira kubvisa mimba, uye [[FLT:] "5] . Hogbergefell [FL:5] [5] [20]

Gadziriro dzapamberi pedzidziso dzinodzivirira rusununguko rusina kudzika midzi zvikuru munhau yenyika negamuchidzanwa. Dare rinoshandisa mupimo wokunzvera wakakomba nokuda kwemitemo inoremedza maruramiro makuru, ichida hurumende kuratidza fariro inomanikidzira nemhesano. Zvisinei, dzidziso yacho haina kuganhurirwa; Dare rakaramba kuziva maruramiro matsva nenzira isina kuoma. Mu Shyngton v. Glucksberg [1997], rakaramba kodzero yokubetsera kuzviuraya, rinosimbisa kuti chirevo cherusununguko chinofanira kutungamirirwa nerondedzero yokungwarira yechakarurama.

Vatsoropodzi vanoti kudzivirira kodzero dzedare kunoramba kuchitsanangura nharo dzemazuva ano dzinotaurwa nemitemo yepamutemo.

Chiratidzo Chenhau dzeDare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa Dzinokanganisa Gadziriro Yakafanira

[[FOL:0] Miranda v. Arizona[ (1966)

Mu Manda, Dare rapamusoro rakataura kuti ropafadzo yeFindrement inorwisana nokuzvitutumadza inoda kuti mapurisa azivise vanofungira kodzero dzavo kuti varambe vakanyarara uye kuva negweta rimwe regweta rinenge riripo pabvunzurudzo dzekodzero. Mugumisiro Manda] yazova rutivi rwakarovedzeka rwechikwata cheAmerica. Mhaka iyi inovimbisa kuti vanhu vanonzwisisa dziviriro dzavo dzemitemo yemapurisa vasati vabvunzurudzwa. Pasi penyevero dzakadaro, kutaura kupi nokupi nokupi nokupi kunowanwa kwakawanda kwakaitwa mudare.

Goldberg v.Kelly (1970)

Iyi nhau yakakurukura mutoo wakafanira mumashoko akapoteredza ebetsero dzegarikano. Dare rakatonga kuti apo hurumende inotsvaka kugumisa betsero dzomugamuchiri, inofanira kugovera kunzwa kwenguva isati yasvika, kubatanidza maruramiro okupa ufakazi uye kunangana neZvapupu zvakaipa. Goldberg yakakudziridza dziviriro dzakafanira muhurumende, ichiziva kuti hurumende inogona kuumba chimiro chezvinhu. Chisarudzo chakanyandura kufamba kwakafara kumiitiro yemiitiro yakarongwa mumasangano anobva kuRugare rwavose kuenda kudzimba dzavose.

[[ITSO:0] Roe v. Wade[[[FLT] [1] (1973)

Kunyange zvazvo gare gare yakadzorwa ne Dobs v. Jackson Basi’s Health Organization [202], Roe yakanga iri purogiramu yechiratidzo yegadziriro inomirira. Dare rakawana kuti kodzero yokuvanda, yakabatanidza chisarudzo chomukadzi chokugumisa pamuviri. [[FLT:] [FLT]] itsika yechiratidzo chokuti muitiro wakafanira unogona sei kudzivirira kudzomuganhu. Chinoti chinoramba chiri pakati pekurukurirano pamusoro pekodzero dzisina kuiswa papamuviri.

[[FF:0] Mathews v. Eldidge[[FL:1] (1976)

Iyi nhau yakatanga gadziriro yazvino uno yokusarudza kuti muitiroi wakafanira. Dare rakataura kuti muitiro wakafanira unochinjika uye unoda kudzikamisa fariro yomunhu oga, ngozi yemhosho, uye fariro yehurumende. Mu Mathews[, Dare rakatonga kuti betsero dzekusachengeteka kweSocial Security dzingagona kumiswa pasina kunzwa nguva yemberi, kwenguva refu kwazvo sezvo miitiro yepashure penhambo yenguva yehurumende yakanga yakakwana.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Mu Obergefell, Dare Rapamusoro-soro rakati IPFmentermented Acceltice Procession ye 14th Clause inovimbisa maruramiro eroorano yohuhumwe. Dare rakarangarira kuti roorano ikodzero inokosha, uye kurambira vakwanyina vomuviri mumwe chetevo vevatano kuvanyima rusununguko pasina muitiro wakafanira. Chisarudzo chakasimbisa kuti muitiro wakafanira wapashure pe 14 unotsigira maruramiro okuroora, kubatanidza chisarudzo chavanoda kuroora, sorutivi rwejiramende yemitemo.

Gadziriro Inodikanwa Mudzidzo

Zvikoro zvavose zvinofanira kuremekedza kodzero dzavadzidzi pakuraira zvirango zvokuranga. Mu Gos v. Lopez [1975], Dare Rapamusorosa rairangarira kuti vadzidzi vanotarisana nokusundwa kwamazuva gumi kana kuti zvishoma vane kodzero yokuziva mhosva dzacho uye mukana wokunzwiwa — kurukurirano yamasanga nevakuru vakuru vechikoro. Nokuda kwedzirefu kana kuti kudzingwa, miitiro yakawanda yakarongwa ingadikanwa, kubatanidza kodzero yokudana zvapupu, uye kudana zvapupu zvakaipa.

Vakuru vakuru vezvikoro vanofanira kudzikamisa kudiwa kwechirango chine nhevedzano nemitemo yepamutemo.

  • Thoko rekuti: Mudzidzi anofanira kuziviswa nezvetsika dzisina kururama dzakati dzinonzi uye migumisiro inobvira.
  • [ Kunzwa: Mudzidzi anofanira kuva nebanza rinokosha rokupa rutivi rwavo pamberi pomuiti wechisarudzo asingasaruri.
  • [ Chisarudzo chinofanira kuvakirwa paufakazi hwakati, kwete husingafungiri kana kuti hwokuchinja.
  • [[FT:0]Appal: maruwa mazhinjisa anogovera muitiro wezvisarudzo zvinofadza.

Muitiro wakafanira unoshandawo kuzvimwe zviito zvechikoro, zvakadai senharo, zvinangwa zvedzidzo chaiyo, uye kutsvaka nokubvuta navakuru vakuru vechikoro. Kurambidzwa kweFrendment yeChina pakunzvera kusina mufungo kunomanikidzirwa muzvikoro mumupimo wenyumwiro ine mufungo, kwete chisakiso chinobvira, chinoratidzira zvinodikanwa chaizvo zvemhoteredzo yechikoro. Kunyanguvezvo, vadzidzi havaregi maruramiro ose ebumbiro remitemo pagedhi rechikoro.

Kufambira Mberi Kunoenderana Nezera Racho

Ruzivo rwazvino uno runomutsa mibvunzo mitsva inodikanwa. Apo hurumende inoita purogiramu yemichina yemagetsi, kubata nhare dzeserura, kana kuti kushandisa maarufabheti kuti aite zvisarudzo pamusoro pebetsero, muitiroi unofanirwa? Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti kunzvera chinoitika cheserura kunoda murairo, kuziva chitsama chikuru chemazita omunhu oga aya makombiyuta ane. Mu Karperter v. United States [208], Dare rakatonga kuti kuwanikwa kwemabhii enzvimbo yeterunda nerositiki kunoitwa nenzvimbo yenhau yehurumende kuumba chinyorwa chePrejimende yechina. Kunyange zvazvo kusati kuri muitiro wakananga, [[FLT:][FFF] Cententerter [F]]

Nenzira yakafanana, gadziriro dzokuita zvisarudzo dzinorongwa neapoto dzinoshandiswa namasangano ehurumende — somuenzaniso, kusarudza kukodzera betsero dzourovha kana kuti kudeya kutaura kuvharwazve mukutonga kwoutsotsi — dzinofanira kugovera dziviriro dzakakwana dzemitongo youtsotsi. Kana realgorime richigovera mireza yenhema mumwe munhu seasingapiki, dzinogona kudenha chisarudzo chacho here? Ko muitiro wakafanira unoda kujeka pamusoro pokuti rati inoshanda sei? Iyi mibvunzo iri pamuganhu womutemo webumbiro-mitemo, uye matare akaderera ari kurwisana nayo pasina nhungamiro yakajeka yeDare rapamusorosoro ichiripo.

Zvinetso Zvinotevera

Kukweva Kwezvikepe Kwakawanda uye Kubvisa Mazaya

United States ine mwero wakakwirira zvikuru wokusungwa pakati pamarudzi akabudirira. Matambudziko okusungwa muhondo yapasi mumugwagwa anodikanwa munzira dzinoverengeka. Vadziviriri vehurumende vakawandirwa havagoni kugovera betsero inobudirira yezano. Plea anotaurisa, uyo anopedza 95% yemhosva dzoutsotsi, kazhinji kazhinji anodzvinyirira vakwirirwi vasina mhaka kuti vatendere kuva nemhaka kuti vadzivise zvitsama zviduku zvinomanikidzirwa. Ruramisiro kukutonga kunovimbiswa sezvinofungidzirwa, asi tsika inodzivisa kushandiswa kwayo. Vatsoropote vanopikisa kuti ikoku kunosekesa chipikirwa chinokosha chegadziriro yeadversarial.

Mukuwedzera, miitiro yebheyi — uko vakwirirwi vanoitirwa pamberi pedare nemhaka yokuti havagoni kukwanisa kusvitsa chisungo — chirango chinobudirira vanhu pamberi pokupwiswa. Mu United States v.Salerno[ (87), Dare Gurusa rakatsigira kuchengetwa kwokudzivirira asi bedzi mumigariro yakaganhurirwa. Kunyanguvezvo, nyika zhinji dzinopfuurira kudzora vanhu vakaderera nemhaka bedzi yourombo, kukwidziridza itiro yezviito zvakafanira.

Kusiyana Kwemadzinza

Mavara edzinza akazara negadziriro yeruramisiro yamatsotsi. Nzvero dzinoratidza kuti vanhu vatema navaHispanic sezvingabvira zvikuru vachasungwa, vanopomerwa mhaka dzakakomba zvikuru, uye vanotongerwa kumashoko marefu kupfuura vachena nokuda kwomufambiro wakafanana. Uku kupesana kunogona kubva mukusaruramisira kwetsika, kungwaririra, mirayiridzo, uye tsvumo dzakajeka. Nepo Kudzivirira Claus ndicho chishandiso chikuru chebumbiro remitemo kudenha rusaruro rwedzinza, muitiro wakafanira unoitawo basa. Somuenzaniso, mu Batson v. Kentucky (1986), Dare rairangarira kuti rusaruro muchisarudzo chedare rinotonga runoputsa mumutengo.

Urudzi hwegadziriro inogonawo kuoneka mumiitiro iyo imene. Somuenzaniso, mirau mitatu inoisa mitongo youpenyu nokuda kwavaiti vemhosva vasina masimba masimba vanodzokororwa ingadenhwa seinoputsa muitiro wakafanira wapamberi kana iri inopesana. Zvisinei, kuhwirudzurwa kweDare pasi peSereth Amendment (inobatanidza nheyo dzinofanira kuitwa) yakaganhurirwa. Kurangana kwemarudzi kunoda chinjo mugadziriro yehurumende, kuranga, uye gadziriro yezano.

Kutama uye Kutarisirwa Kwazvakaitwa

Kutonga kwekutora vanhu ndekwokuzvidira, kwete kwokupara mhosva, asi kunogona kuguma nokudzingwa kwakakomba — kushaiwa rusununguko. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakati vasiri vagari vemo vane kodzero yokunyora zvakafanira mukuita chiito. Padilla v. Kentucky [2010] Dare rakatonga kuti vadziviriri vemhosva vanofanira kurayira vatengi vasingapindi pamusoro pemigumisiro yokubuda yokukumbira kune mhosva. Kunyange zvakadaro, nzira dzakakodzera mudare rokubuda munyika dzinova duku zvikuru kupfuura dare routsotsi: hapana chinovimbiswa zvakarurama nokuda kwezano risiri renyika, uye mupimo wezvibvumikiso zvinofanira kunzi "progreat" panzvimbo pokuva ne"

Kusungwa kwokuendesa kunzvimbo yapasi pevhu kunomutsawo nhau dzakafanira. Sezvo kusungwa kuri kwavagari vemo, kunogona kuva kusingagumi mune mamwe mamiriro ezvinhu, kunyange zvazvo Dare mu Zadvydas v. Davis (2001] akaisa muganhu wemwedzi mitanhatu wokusungwa unowirirana nokubviswa. Kuchengetwa kwedare rokubudisira munyika, kunenge mazana ezviuru zvemhosva dzakamira, kunoreva vanhu vakawanda vanomirira makore akawanda nokuda kwokutongwa — kunonoka kungaputsa muitiro wakafanira kana ukafungira mano avo okupa ufakazi.

Kuuraya Vane Mubatanidzwa Wezvinhu Zvevatano

Kubata nepomero dzevatano panzvimbo dzepakoreji kwazova muitiro unokakavadzana wehondo. Nhungamiro dzeFederal pasi peTitle VI neTitle IX dzinoda zvikoro kunzvera nokupedza nyunyuto nokukurumidza. Asi mutoo wakadini unofanirwa kuvadzidzi vanopomerwa mhaka? Dare raparadzana. Vamwe vanoda kutongwa kupenyu nokuongororwa kwemichinjikwa; vamwe vanobvumira munzveri mumwe. Department of Education’s IXtion 2020 Mitemo yakaraira kuti zvirarame nokunzwa nokuongororwa navanoongorora navasori veBden. Iyi miraudzo yakabviswa gare gare gare gare nedare reBiden, vachisiya zvikoro nemipimo inosiano.

Mu Doe v. University of Pennsylvania [2021], Tshanhu reThird Tturty raidavira kuti yunivhesiti yavose inofanira kugovera vadzidzi vanopomerwa ziviso dzepomero, ufakazi, uye banza rine revo rokupindura. Dare Gurusa harisati rapedza zvinodikanwa chaizvoizvo zvakafanira mumiitiro yechikoro, asi kombamiro iri kukuda miitiro yakarongwa apo mbatya — zvakadai sekudzinga kana kuti chinyorwa chokupedzisira — yakakwirira.

mhedziso

Muitiro wakakodzera unoramba uri dziviriro ine simba uye inokosha pachiito chehurumende. Kuvambira pamavambo ayo muMagna Carta kusvikira kukushanda kwayo kwazvino uno mukunzvera kwemichina, kutama, uye chirango chechikoro, nheyo inoda kuti hurumende ibate vanhu nenzira inoruramisira, nenzira yakajeka, uye nokuremekedza maruramiro makuru. Sezvo nzanga inochinja, denho itsva dzichapfuurira kuedza miganhu yeinofanira kuitwa. Vadzidzi navadzidzisi vanofanira kunzwisisa kuti muitiro wakakodzera hausati uri mutezo wakagadzwa wakarongwa wakarongwa wakarongwa asi chipikirwa chipenyu — icho chinoda kungwarira, kugadziridza, uye musengwa kururamisiro nokuda kwavose.

Nokuda kwokuravazve, ona [[FLT: 0] Chibvumirano Chakanyorwa paChiito Chakafanira, [ Connell Information Institute , uye [[FLT]OYEZ Project[ nokuda kwenhau nekakavadzano dzomuromo.