Kutanga: Dzidziso Yokusawirirana uye Kuchinja Kwehurumende

Dare Gurusa reUnited States raka “batanidza” dziviriro dzakawanda muBill of Rights muhurumende kupfurikidza neGungano reGungano reMitemo reAmerica reMitemo yeMitemo yeMitemo. Ikoku kunoreva kuti rusununguko rwakadai sokutaura, pepanhau, rudzidziso, uye maruramiro okubatanidza zvino nyika nehurumende zvomunzvimbomo sezvo zvinobatanidza hurumende dzehurumende.

Bva nhau yokubatanidza haisati iri bedzi dare rehurumende. Hurumende hurusa yedare iri mukati mehurumende imwe neimwe() inoita basa gurusa, risingashandiswi zvikuru mukuumba kuti kodzero idzodzo dzinonzwisiswa sei, dzinoshandiswa, uye kunyange kukudzwa. Nepo Dare Rapamusoro reUnited States richiisa nzvimbo yenyika, matare ehurumende anogona kugovera dziviriro yakakwirira zvikuru mumitemo yawo amene. Zvisarudzo zvawo zvinogona kupesvedzera dzidziso yehurumende, kugadzira zvinyorwa zvepamutemo nokuda kwekodzero itsva, uye pane dzimwe nguva kumanikidza Dare rapamusoro reU.S. kuti rirangarirezve rondedzero dzaro dzimene.

Nyaya ino inonzvera nzira dzakawanda dzinotaura kuti matare makurusa anopesvedzera Incorporation Doctrine, kubva pakududzira zvikonzero zvakazvimirira zvehurumende kusvikira kumienzaniso inokwira mugadziriro yehurumende.Tichanzvera nhau huru, zvikonzero zvokuvakwa kweiyi pesvedzero, uye ganhuriro dzinochengeta ukama pakati pematare ehurumende nehurumende nesimba panzvimbo penzvimbo yehoritari.

Chivako Chacho: Chirongwa Chokushandira Pamwe uye Kutonga Kwechikwata

Kunzwisisa chikonzero nei matare makurusa achidudza nhau nokuda kweIncorporation Doctrine, munhu anofanira kutanga kunzwisisa mufungo wegadziriro yehurumende yeAmerica. United States haisati iri gadziriro yegadziriro yehurumende; nyika dzinochengeta masimba adzo makuru, kubatanidza chiremera chokuchengeta mabumbiro emitemo adzo amene, mirau, uye magamuchidzanwa avose. Bumbiro reMitemo reU. Kupfurikidza neSuprematy Claus, rinogadza mutemo mukurusa wenyika, asi nyika dzakasununguka kutambanudzira dziviriro huru zvikuru kuvagari vemo vadzo kudarika zvinoraira Bumbiro remitemo rehurumende rehurumende.

Iyi nheyo, inowanzonzi “zvikonzero zvehurumende zvakazvimirira uye zvakakwana,” inobvumira dare rehurumende rapamusoro kuvakira chisarudzo charo chose chose pamutemo wehurumende. Apo dare rehurumende rinotonga mhaka pazvikonzero zvakazvimirira zvehurumende, Dare Gurusa reUnited States harisati richizoihwirudzura, nemhaka yokuti hapana mubvunzo wehurumende unokurukurwa. Ikoku kunoparira chishandiso chine simba nokuda kwematare ehurumende kukudza maruramiro anopfuura mamiriro ezvinhu ehurumende pasina kutya kuchinjwa.

Somuenzaniso, muma 1970, Dare Rapamusoro reCalifornia rakatsanangura chitsama chakavanzika chebumbiro remitemo rehurumende kurambidza kuongororwa kwendege kusingabvumirwi kwedzimba dzepaseri peguta (8) kwakarurama kuti Dare Rapamusoro reUnited States, panguva iyoyo, rakanga risati razivikanwa muGaramende Rechina. Iyi nharaunda yakafutunurwa haina kurwisana nomutemo womubatanidzwa; yakawedzera dziviriro yomuraudzo. Zvisarudzo zvakadaro zvinoratidza kuti Incorporation Doctrine haisati iri mugwagwa mumwe chete wapachivande unobva kuWashington kuenda kunyika. Panzvimbo pezvo, ikurukurirano umo matare ehurumende anowanzotaura, uye matare omubatanidzwa padzimwe nguva zvinotevera.

Mitemo yeHurumende Sevashandi Vekodzero

Dimikira rezvibvumirano se “zvirongwa zvehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu,” zvakatangwa nomutongi Louis Brandeis, zvinoshanda nesimba rakazara kukodzero dzebumbiro remitemo. matare makuru ehurumende nguva dzose anoedza nedudziro itsva idzo gare gare dzinopesvedzera mutemo webumbiro remitemo. Ikoku ndokwechokwadi zvikurukuru munharaunda umo Dare Gurusa reU.S. rave richizengurira kuita chiito kana kuti apo rugwaro rweFederal Bill of Rights runosiya nzvimbo inogarwa namashoko mashoma.

Kuparadzira Kutaura Kwakasununguka Nedziviriro Dzenhau

Imwe nharaunda umo matare ehurumende ave achishingaira zvikuru ikutaura kwakasununguka. Nepo First Amendment ichigadza mupimo muduku, mabumbiro emitemo anoverengeka ane mutauro unodzivirira zvikuru basa rokutaura. Somuenzaniso, chitsama chamadiro cheOregon Constitution, chakagamuchirwa muna 1857, chakadudzirwa nedare guru reOregon Supreme Court kugovera dziviriro dzakafara nokuda kwokutaura kwakashata uye kutaura kwokufananidzira kupfuura mutemo wehurumende. Sartiogn v. Ciancanellicl [2009], dare rakatsigira kodzero yokuparadzira zvinhu zvinonyatanharira muvatano izvo U. Dare guru rakanga ratotogona kutorerwa mumipimo wehurumende. Kupfurikidza nokuumba chisarudzo charo muResvo reSarence Constitution, dare redare redziro rakagadzira

Nenzira yakafanana, Dare reNew York reZvikumbiro raiwanzova nomurangariro mukuru wokutaura kwakasununguka, zvikurukuru mumhaka dzinobatanidza kuganhurirwa kusati kwaitwa nekodzero dzavashandi vehurumende. Mu Olesik v. Elmsford Union Free School District [2022], dare rakashandisa muedzo webumbiro remitemo uyo wakadzivirira mudzidzisi wemagariro avanhu panzvimbo dzakava nesimba zvikuru kupfuura raizova nawo muedzo womubatanidzwa. Izvi zvisarudzo hazvichinji zvakananga Incoromation - transton Diginectries, asi zvinoumba mutumbi wemuenzaniso wenhau iyo matare ehurumende pane dzimwe nguva inotsinhira kutaura kwomubatanidzwa.

Kuwedzera Kuva Woga uye Kufambira Mberi Kwakakodzera

Kuvanza ndiimwe nzvimbo umo matare ehurumende akatungamirira nzira. Dare reMitemo reU.S. harina kodzero yakajeka yokuva voga, asi Dare Rapamusoro rakapa mumwe kubva muBhili rekodzero. Mitemo yakasiana- siyana ine zvikamu zvakavanzika zvakajeka. California Constitution, yakagadziriswa muna 1972, inobatanidza “kodzero yokuvanda kwapachivande” kuti dare raro rapamusoro rakadudzira zvakasimba. Hill v. National Collegiatec Association [1994]), dare rakataura kuti kuva voga vatambi vehurumende vanoshanda sehurumende, rinobatanidza kudarika chinodikanwa cheGemendei. Zvisarudzo zvakadaro zvinoparira kudzivirira, asi zvinozivisawo chiremera.

Uyezve, matare ehurumende akasimudzira maruramiro ayo Dare reHurumende reUnited States guru harisati rabatanidza, zvakadai sekodzero yedzidzo yakakwana. Mu ABBOT v. Burke [85], Dare guru reNew Jersey rakaramba kuti mutemo wemitemo waida kutsigira mari yechikoro nenzira inotenderwa, kutaura kwokuti Dare guru reU.S. rakanga raramba mudziviriro yomubatanidzwa yakaenzana mu San Antonio Independent School v. Rodriguez [773]). Kunyange zvazvo Dare rehurumende raidzosaidzosaidzo ringazadza sei mamiriro ezvinhu okupinda echiuto.

Kupesvedzera Kunoita Zvisarudzo zveDare Repamusorosoro reHurumende Mutemo Wehurumende

Kupesvedzera kwematare makurusa ehurumende paIncorporation Doctrine hakuna kuganhurirwa kukugadzira mipimo yakasiyana - siyana yehurumende. zvisarudzo zvehurumende zvinogona kuumba zvakananga kududzira kwebumbiro remitemo rehurumende kupfurikidza nemitoo inoverengeka.

Chiremera Chinokurudzira uye Kufambira Mberi Kwemipimo Yorudzi

Matare eFederal, kubatanidza Dare repamusorosoro reU.S., nguva dzose anodudza matare ehurumende sechiremera chokunyengetedza, zvikurukuru apo anorwisana nenhau dzemitemo itsva. Somuenzaniso, mu Mairanda v. Arizona[ (666), Dare rapamusoro rakavimba murutivi rwezvisarudzo zvedare rehurumende izvo zvakanga zvatoisa mhevero mubvunzurudzo dzekodzero. Dare repamusoro reCalifornia mu vanhu v. Dorado [1965]] [6]) rakanga rataura kuti mapurisa eFiverset Amendment aida kuzivisa maruramiro avo okuramba vakanyarara. Kunyange zvazvo Dare gurusa renyika renyika renyika yose rakagadza mupimo wedare rinopamhene.

Nenzira yakafanana, Mapp v. Ohio (1961]) chisarudzo, icho chaibatanidza mutemo wokuparadzanisa nyika, chakapesvedzerwa nokuedza kwedare rehurumende. Masangano mazhinji akanga atogamuchira mitemo inoparadzanisa mubumbiro remitemo yawo amene kana kuti mutemo wakafanana, uye Dare mu Mapp[ akacherekedza kuti izvi zvinoitika zvakaratidzira kushanda kwomutemo. nokudaro matare ehurumende akabatira sezvikonzero zvinobvumikisa kuva pamutemo.

Kuparira Gakava Rinokurudzira Kuhwirudzurwa Kwedare Rapamusoro Zvikurusa

Dare guru rehurumende rinogonawo kumanikidza ruoko rwedare reUnited States kupfurikidza nokuparira paradzano muchiremera. Apo dare rehurumende rinodudzira maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo rehurumende munzira inorwisana nemuenzaniso weDare gurusa rakapararira, Dare ringapa certiori kupedza kusabvumirana kwacho. Somuenzaniso, mu Obergefell v. Hodges [2020], Dare Rapamusoro raifanira kupedza rwisano pakati pematare ekwirira makurusa ayo akanga atsigira kurambidzwa kweroorano kumwe cheteko uye matare makurusa eMexico (se Dare gurusaresa re [FLT.FFLD:2]]] r. .Conf [FFFLT] 2013]) rakarava mutemo waromesssss aindet pamutemo kuti ade kuzivikanwa.

Nguva pfupi yapfuura zvikuru, matare makurusa ehurumende akabudisa zvisarudzo pamusoro poukuru hwokudzivirirwa kwavakakwaniriswa, chiitiko chokutsvaka kusungwa, uye ngozi dzakapetwa kaviri dzinobva pamipimo yehurumende.

Kugadza Tsika Dzenyika Kupfurikidza ne “New Federalism”

Mukati memibatanidzwa yeAlaska Supreme Court, somuenzaniso, yakadudzira bumbiro remitemo raro kuti ripe dziviriro huru pakunzvera kwemotokari kunopfuura dare reU.S. Dare Gurusa reOregon rakabvumira pasi peGrandment yeGeneti. Zvisarudzo zvakafanana zvakaputsawo zvitendero zvapamutemo muzvitendero zvinopesana nedzidziso dzehurumende munharaunda dzakadai sedigrin tript nekodzero dzedare rinotonga. Izvi zvisarudzo zvakaparira mutumbi womutemo wemitemo wemitemo yemitemo yemitemo yehurumende uyo wakava nongedzero huru zvikuru nokuda kwenyanzvi, uye vatongi vehurumende. Nepo Dare gurusa reU. Kakawanda Dare reU. Rakarega kutevera uku kukura, hurumende pane dzimwe nguva yakaita kuti Dare rehurumende riite pamutemo rorudzi.

Mienzaniso Yakatanhamara Yepesvedzero yeHurumende

Kuenzanisira tapuro chaiyo yematare makurusa ehurumende paIncorporation Doctrine, kunobetsera kunzvera nhau shomanene dzakatanhamara.

Dare Repamusorosoro reCalifornia Nekodzero Yokuva Woga

Muna 1972, vavhoti veCalifornia vakawedzera kodzero yakajeka yokuva voga kubumbiro remitemo. Dare rapamusoro reCalifornia rakakurumidza kupa iyi gadziriro mazino. Mu White v. Davis[[FLT:] (1975], dare rakataura kuti vanhu vehurumende vakavanzika hwakarurama hwamapurisa pamisangano yavose yapamutemo. (8) dare rakashandisa chibvumirano chakakwirira kutsvakisisa motokari kuti ipedzedze chiitiko. Dare gurusa rakabvumira [[FLT:] gare gare gare gare, mu [[FLT:].Briensine[FL:][3][3][3] [5], dare rakashandisa pamutemo pakupedzisira kunzvera pamutemo kuti atsvake chiitiko chakakwirira . [F][3]

Dare Rokukwirira reNew York NeProcestration of Ages

Dare rapamusoro zvikurusa reNew York rave riri mutyairi wemiitiro yetsotsi. Mu Vanhu v.Anderson [77], Dare reNew York reZvikumbiro rakadudzira maruramiro ehurumende kuraira kuti mapurisa arege kubvunza munyumwiri uyo akanga akumbira mumiririri wemitemo, kunyange kana mufungidziri gare gare akatangazve mutemo unodzoreka kupfuura “kuedza kwomubatanidzwa” pasi po mutongo. Arizona [1981]. Dare rehurumende rakaparira nenzira inobudirira“ mutemo weNew York' uyo wakagovera dziviriro mukwikwikwidzano. Ichi chisarudzo hachina kuchinja zvakananga mubatanidzwa, asi chakapa muenzaniso unoverengeka netendero wakapiwa nedzimwe matare.

Dare Rapamusorosoro reWashington Namaruramiro Edzidzo

Mu chisarudzo, chakavakirwa mumashoko edzidzo Nha. Hurumende [1988], Dare Rapamusoro reWashington rairangarira kuti dare raida kuti chigadziro chive “chakaita gadziriro yakakwana nokuda kwedzidzo yavana vose.". Iyi chisarudzo, chakavakirwa mumashoko edzidzo ehurumende, chakagadza basa iro Dare Gurusa reU.S. rakanga raramba kuisa pasi peKinneth Amendment. Kunyange zvazvo risati riri mhaka yedare parinogaro, chinoratidza kuti matare ehurumende anogona sei kuita kodzero dzinoshanda zvakafanana kuti dzipinzwe mukodzero dzehurumende, uye kuti dzipesvedze puro yechikoro dzidzo yokupedzisira munyika yose.

Matambudziko uye Kuda Kupfuura Zvazvinogona Kuita Hurumende

Pasinei zvapo nesimba rawo rinokosha, matare makurusa anotaura kuti anotarisana neganhuriro chaidzoidzo pakuedza kuumba Indiscoporation Doctrine.

Miganhu Yemirayiro uye Mutongi Ane Mufungo waClaus

Chinoganhuriro chiri pachena zvikurusa ndechomugariro wapasi. Chisarudzo chedare rapamusorosoro chebumbiro remitemo raro rinoshanda bedzi mukati mehurumende. Nepo kunyengetedza kumamwe matare, hakuna chiremera kugadza muenzaniso worudzi. Uyezve, kana chisarudzo chedare rehurumende chichirwisana neU.S. Constitution seinorondedzerwa neDare reChikurusarudzo reU., chisarudzo chehurumende hachishandi pasi peSupremacy Claus. Somuenzaniso, kana dare rapamusoro rehurumende raifanira kuisa mutongo wokuti kugadzwa kwaClausle hakushandi muhurumende yose (zvinotaura kuti kunopesana ne [[FLT:]]]. Dare reEquator reEducation [FLT]1]), matare ehurumende angari pamusoro pevhu. Hurumende haigoni kudzosa.

Dzvinyiriro Dzezvamatongerwe Enyika Nedzamasangano

Vatongi vakuru vehurumende vanowanzosarudzwa kana kuti kudzorwa nezvisarudzo zvehurumende, vachizviita vanotapurwa zvikuru nedzvinyiriro yezvamatongerwe enyika kupfuura vatongi vehurumende vanodzorwa noupenyu. Ikoku kunogona kutungamirira kuzvisarudzo izvo zvinowirirana zvikuru nomurangariro wavose womunzvimbomo kupfuura nezvimiro zvemitemo zvorudzi. Somuenzaniso, matare anoverengeka ehurumende akadudzira mabumbiro emitemo avo okuganhurira panzvimbo pokuwedzera kodzero dzavo panzvimbo pokuwedzera, zvikurukuru munharaunda dzakadai sokubvisa pamuviri kana kuti kudzora pfuti. Muna 2018, Io Supreme Court, ipapo inodzorwa noruzhinji rwevaratis, akaputsa mutemo wokubvisa pamuviri unoganhurira mumutemo wapamutemo wehurumende. Pashure pechinjo dzezvamatongerwe enyika dzakachinja nzira yehurumende muna 20222, dare rakatonga muenzaniso iwoyo, rakasimbisa mugariro wehurumende wehurumende.

Ngozi Yokuedzwa Kwevanhu Vasina Kusimba”

Kunyange apo matare ehurumende anowedzera dziviriro, Dare Gurusa reUnited States pane dzimwe nguva rinogona ku “paradza” kukura ikoko kupfurikidza nokuzivisa mupimo womubatanidzwa kuva chiyero chakazara. Somuenzaniso, mu Lockyer v. Andrade (2003), Dare raidavira kuti kurambidza kweSeth Amendment pachirango cheutsinye nechirango chechienzi kwakadzivisa matare ehurumende kushandisa kuhwirudzura kukuru kutoti hurumende inotsamira chose chose chose pamutemo wehurumende. Rudzi urwu rudzi rwouriri hwehurumende [“FLT:1] [2003] [ibumbiro remitemo] runogona kuganhurira mano edare rehurumende okudzora.

Mugumisiro: Kupindira Kukuru kweHurumende Nematare Ehurumende

Dare guru rehurumende rinopfuura zvikuru vagamuchiri vasingaiti basa veDare Rapamusorosoro reUnited States vanoraira. Ivo vatori rutivi vanoshingaira mukukudziridzwa kunopfuurira kweIncorporation Doctrine. Kupfurikidza nokududzira mabumbiro emitemo avo vamene, vanogona kukudza maruramiro anopfuura mamiriro ezvinhu omubatanidzwa, kugadzira chiremera chinopesvedzera icho chinopesvedzera zvisarudzo zvomubatanidzwa, uye kuparira rwisano dzinoparira kugadziridzwa kwomutemo wehurumende. Kubva kuCalifornia maruramiro echivande eOregon gradechech redition, matare ehurumende akaratidzira aratidzirazve kuti kubatanidza kwacho hakusati kuri kurukurirano imwe yeGenega yenhau asi muitiro unoshamisa, unoshanda.

Sezvo denho itsva dzinomuka nharaunda dzakafanana nenzvimbo dzakavanzika dzemichina, kodzero dzokuberekana, uye muitiro woutsotsi zvinoda kurongerwa matare makurusa pasina panikiro achapfuurira kuedza ganhuriro dzokubatanidza. Zvisarudzo zvavo zvichabatira semarabhoritari, zviratidzo zvinonyevera, uye pane dzimwe nguva mapurani ekurukurirano yenyika. Nokuda kwavadzidzi vomutemo webumbiro remitemo, kunzwisisa basa rematare ehurumende kunokosha kunzwisisa kuti Bill of Rights chaizvoizvo inoshanda sei kupfuura nyika dzine makumi mashanu.

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