Kunzwisisa Mhaka Dzekodzero Dzevagari Vemo Mudare

Nyaya dzekodzero dzevanhu dzinova pakati pehurumende inosarudzwa navanhu yeAmerica, dzinochengetedza rusununguko rwomunhu mumwe nomumwe uye dzinovimbisa kubatwa kwakaenzana pasi pomutemo. Apo vagari vemo vanonyora mashoko akadaro, vanenge vachikumbira matare kuti apedze zvipikirwa zvebumbiro remitemo, mitemo yehurumende, uye misiyano inowirirana. Muitiro wacho unowanzova wakaoma, uye migumisiro inogona kuva nemigumisiro yakakura panzanga. Nokunzwisisa kuti vatongi namajangaro anogona sei kuongorora izvi, vagari vemo vanogona kudzora zviri nani tsika, kuziva kodzero dzavo, uye kuziva zvavangatarisira apo vanotsvaka kugadziridza pamutemo.

Mutemo wekodzero dzevagari vemo unofukidza mhatsa yakasiyana - siyana yenhau, kubva pakusarura mabasa nokuvhota kuti vasazvibata zvakanaka uye vadzivirire norusununguko rwokutaura. Mhaka imwe neimwe inovakirwa pagadziriro yapamutemo chaiyo inoda mutengi kuti aratidze kuti kodzero yakadzivirirwa yakapunzwa nesangano rehurumende, mutambi akavanzika, kana kuti sangano rinoita muruvara rwomutemo. Nyaya ino inoputsa mipimo mikuru, miitiro, uye zvinhu zvinorangarira apo inosarudza mhaka dzekodzero dzevagari vemo, ichipa tsananguro yakajeka nokuda kwevasiri vatambi vemitemo.

Mipimo Yapamutemo Inodzora Kodzero Dzevagari Vemo Inotaura

Panzvimbo pezvo, vanoshandisa mitemo yakaganhurirwa yakawanwa muBumbiro remitemo reUnited States, mitemo yehurumende neyehurumende, uye mazana amakore omutemo wemhosva.

Migariro Yebumbiro reMitemo

Hurumende yeSandrement inodzivirira kunzvera nokusundwa. Dare reChina rinodzivirira kunzvera kusina mufungo uye kubatwa nepfari. Chiteshi Chinodzivirira mamiriro ezvinhu e 144th Amendment chinoda kuti vanhu vari munzvimbo yakafanana vabatwe zvakafanana, nepo Nhengo yeSangano inovimbisa kururama kukuru muzviito zvehurumende. Apo mutepfekedzi weFirst Reformation anodzivisa kuputsa mutemo, dare rinofanira kutanga kusarudza kana kodzero yemitemo yakananga iripo uye kana mufambiro womukwikwirirwi uchipesana nayo.

Somuenzaniso, mu Brown v. Board of Education (1954), Dare Rapamusoro rakashandisa Ecult Protection Clause kurwisa muganhu wedzinza muzvikoro zvavose. Chisarudzo ichocho chakagadza muenzaniso unopfuurira kutungamirira matare nhasi. Vagari vomunyika vanounza kutaura kwebumbiro remitemo vanofanira kazhinji kazhinji kuratidza kuti hurumende kana kuti vamiriri vayo vakaita namaune, kwete nokuregeredzawo zvavo.

Mitemo Yemitemo Nemitemo yeHurumende

Dare rakagadza mitemo yakawanda yekodzero dzevanhu inoparira kodzero dzevanhu.Mienzaniso inokosha inosanganisira:

  • Title VII yeChibvumirano cheChibvumirano chekodzero dzevanhu cha1942 - inorambidza rusaruro rwebasa rwakavakirwa padzinza, ruvara, rudzidziso, vatano, kana kuti mavambo orudzi.
  • Title VI yeChibvumirano cheChivil Rights Act ya 1964 – rusaruro mumapurogiramu anogamuchirwa mari yehurumende.
  • . . - zvinovimbisa maruramiro okuita ndokuita zvibvumirano zvakaenzana pasinei zvapo nedzinza.
  • Kupa vanhu mhosva [ - - inobvumira vanhu kukwirira hurumende nevakuru vakuru vemo nokuda kwokuputsa mutemo.
  • [ Act yeFair House - inorambidza rusaruro mukutengeswa kwedzimba, mari yokurenda, uye mari.
  • Vating Rights Act of 1965 - inodzivirira rusaruro rwedzinza mumiitiro yokuvhota.

Mitemo yehurumende ingagoverawo dziviriro dzakafara. Somuenzaniso, Hurumende dzakawanda dzine mitemo yadzo dzimene inorwisana nekusabvumirana pamunhu nechimiro chevatano nechiratidzo chevatano, kunyange apo mutemo wehurumende usingashandisi. Dare rinoshandisa mutauro wakananga womutemo wakafanira, pamwe chete nemirau ipi neipi kana kuti nhungamiro inodudzira, kusarudza ukuru hwechakarurama nechibvumikiso chinodikanwa.

Mutoro Woufakazi Nemipimo Yokuhwirudzura

Mukodzero dzavagari vemo, muparadzi anowanzova nomutoro woufakazi. Muzvinoitika zvizhinjisa, ikoku kufuridzira ufakazi hunoyera – kureva kuti mupunzi anofanira kupwisa dare kuti sezvingabvira zvikuru kupfuura kuti kuputswa kwakaitika. dzimwe tsinhiro, dzakadai seidzo dzechirango kana kuti zviito zvakati zvebumbiro remitemo, dzingada ufakazi hwakajeka uye hunopwisa.

Mupimo wehwirudzuro nhauwo. Apo dare rinohwirudzura chiito chehurumende chinosarura pahwaro hwedzinza, rudzidziso, kana kuti mavambo orudzi, chinoshanda nzvero yoruwa[. Hurumende inofanira kuratidza kuti mutemo unosanogadzirirwa kubatira fariro inomanikidzira. Kusarudza kwakavakirwa pamunhurume, kunoshanda. Kumwe kuzhinjisa kwemimwe mativi, hwaro hune mufungo hunoshandiswa, izvo zvinoda bedzi fariro yepamutemo yehurumende. Iyi mipimo yakasiana-faranyo inotapura zvikuru kuti igogadzire sei matare anosarudza nhau.

Zvinyorwa Zvemutemo Wekodzero Dzevanhu: Kubva Pakubiridzira Kuenda Kumutongo

Kunzwisisa nhano dzokuronga kunoitwa kunobetsera vagari vemo kutevera fambiro mberi yenhau ndokunzwisisa apo zvisarudzo zvikuru zvinoitwa.

Kupedzisa Kunyunyuta Nemhinduro

Nyaya inovamba apo rugwaro rwapamutemo runosaidza nyunyuto - rugwaro rwemitemo runotaura maidi, runozivisa kutaura kwapamutemo, uye runotaura rusununguko rutsvakwa. Kunyunyuta kunofanira kugutsa chinodikanwa che rusingaoneki chakagadzwa mu [[FLT]] . [[FLT]] BELT] . [2007] [na] [[FLT]]] ft v. Iq[FLT:] 209]). Ikoko kunoreva kuti zvinhu zvose zvinofanira kutaura kuti zvakanaka pachiso chazvo, zvingobvira. Pashure pebasa, zvinyorwa zvinotsiva, izvo zvinobatanidza zviitiko zvinodzivisa kuzvidzivirira.

Somuenzaniso, kana mutongi akakwidza mhaka nokuda kworusaruro rwedzinza rebasa asi asingatauri mabasa api naapi akananga anoitwa nomushandirwi – kutaurawo zvako bedzi kwokusaruramisira – dare ringaramba nhau yacho pasi poKutonga kweFederal kweCivil Procediture 12(b)(6). Ichi chipingamupinyi chetsika chakapararira mukodzero dzavagari vemo.

Kuwanikwa Kwakaitwa: Uchapupu Hunogutsa

Kuwana zvinhu ndeimwe yenhambo dzinonetsa zvikuru. Matare anowanzopa mirayiridzo inodzivirira kudzikamisa fariro dzemunhu oga neuchapupu hunodiwa.

Rutivi runokosha rwokuwana maruramiro avagari vemo kubatanidzwa kunobvira kwemagwaro ehurumende anodzivirirwa neropafadzo, zvakadai sezvinyorwa zvokuchengetedza mutemo kana kuti zvinhu zvenzira yokuita nayo zvinhu. Vatongi vangada mukuhwirudzura makamera kusarudza kana magwaro acho achifanira kubudiswa. Kuwanwa kunogonawo kuparira kuita miitiro yokutonga kwokupfupikisa.

Zviito Zvinoramba Zvakananga: Chisarudzo Chokupfupikisa Nokudzinga

Pashure pokuwana, mumwe nomumwe angatora chisarudzo chokupfupikisa, achisimbisa kuti hakuna gakava rechokwadi reidi rezvinhu uye kuti ivo vane maruramiro okutonga senhau yomutemo. dare rinonzvera ufakazi muchiedza hwakanaka zvikurusa kuboka risingachinji. Kana mutongi akawana kuti dare rinonzwisisa harigoni kutonga mutongi ane mufungo, mhaka icharambwa. Chisarudzo chapachidimbu chakakurumbira munhau dzamaruramiro avagari vemo umo maidi anopokanidzwa uye mubvunzo bedzi ndowokuti mutemo unoziva zvakarurama here kana mutemo uchigona kutonga mutongi.

Mu Saucier v. Katz (2001) uye nhau dzakazotevera, Dare Rapamusoro rakatanga gadziriro ine nhano mbiri dzokudzivisa kukwaniriswa, uko kunowanzotungamirira kuchisarudzo chapakuvamba chekodzero dzavanhu dzinotaura mukurwisana navakuru vakuru vehurumende. dare rinosarudza (1) kana maidi achiratidza kuputswa kwamaruramiro ebumbiro remitemo, uye (2) kana kodzero iyoyo yakatangwa zvakajeka panguva yomufambiro. Kana zvimwe zvikasaitwa, mukuru mukuru mukuru wehurumende anodzivisa jambwa netanho.

Kutongwa uye Kupomerwa

Kana nyaya yacho ikaramba iripo, inopfuurira kutongwa. Kutongwa kwakawanda kwekodzero dzevanhu kuri pamberi pedare rinobetsera vatongi kutoti vose vari vaviri vachiramba kodzero iyoyo. Mupurisa wacho anopa ufakazi, anodana zvapupu, uye anoita nharo dzapamutemo. Mukwirirwi anoita zvimwe chetezvo. mutongi anopa mirayiridzo pamutemo unoshanda. ipapo vatongi vanodzosa mutongo noune uye vanodzorera mutongo.

Mukutonga kwebhenji (kunoedzwa kumutongi oga), mutongi anoita somuwani weidi nenhau zvinowanwa zveidi nemhedziso dzomutemo. Chisarudzo kana kuti mutongo zvingabatanidza kuvadziko yokutsiva nokuda kwekuvadziko yakatamburwa, chirango chokuranga mufambiro wokusasarura, uye kuraira kwokuda kubetsera mukwirirwi kuti arege muitiro kana kuti aite zviito zvakati. Mitengo yeAttatorney inowanikawo mumitemo yakawanda yekodzero dzevanhu, inokurudzira kuchengetwa kwekodzero dzevanhu.

Zvinhu Zvinopesvedzera Zvisarudzo Zvokutonga Munhau Dzekodzero Dzevagari Vemo

Nepo nhau iri yose yakasiyana, matare nguva dzose anoyera zvinhu zvakati pakusarudza kutaura kwekodzero dzevanhu.

Kusimba Kwouchapupu Nekuzivikanwa

Hufakazi hunokosha. Hufakazi hwenhau hwakadai seemail, mavhidhiyo, uye miitiro yapamutemo kazhinji kazhinji hune ufakazi hukuru kupfuura ufakazi hwoga. Kuvimbwa kwavanopupurira kunonzverwa zvikuru. Munhau dzorusaruro, matare anotsvaka ufakazi hwakananga[ [[FLT]] (mashoko anoratidza tsvudziro) kana kuti [[FLT]] chitsauko chakakomba [[FLT]] chinoita kuti chikwidzike kusarura. Chivako chakakurumbira chinobva Donennell Douglas. v. [FLT] [5] [73]) inobvumira chaita kuti pave nenhau inoyera kupfurikidza nokuratidza kusarura (1) kudzivirira kirasi, kana kuti ive inotapukubetserwa nokuda kwechiito chakako, kana kuti yakatambudzwawo. Rudzi rwenze, rwakato rwakasarira mberi, runopa chikonzero chakajeka. Rurirwo runobvumira kuti chibvumikiswe kuti chibvumike kuti chibvumikiswe kuti chibvumike.

Kutanga uye Kuongorora Kwepamutemo Kunonyengera

Matare anosungirwa nezvisarudzo zvematare makuru. dare reruwa rehurumende rinofanira kutevera muenzaniso kubva kudare raro redunhu rekukwirira uye Dare reHurumende rePamusorosoro reU. Hurumende inotevera mirau yadzo hurusa yehurumende. Kana pasina muenzaniso unoshanda zvakananga, matare angapa chiremera chinonyengetedza kumimwe mitongo. Iyi nheyo ye [[FLT: 0] inogovera kusachinja uye kutevedzana.

Somuenzaniso, pashure pechisarudzo cheDare Gurusa mu Obergefell v. Hodges (2015] Kuwana kodzero yebumbiro remitemo kuroorano imwe cheteyo yeteji, matare maduku akakurumidza kushandisa chisarudzo ichocho kukuva renjero dzehurumende. Nenzira yakapesana, apo Dare rakatonga gare gare Roe v. Wade[ mu [[FLT:]] Dobs v. Jackson’s Organization youtano hweVakadzi [[FLT:]]] [2022], matare akaderera akanga achifanira kugadziridza kunzvera kwavo muitiro wapashatiro.

Kudzivirira Kunokwaniriswa Nehurumende

Kudzivirirwa kwakakodzera ndeimwe yedziviriro dzinomutsa nharo zvikurusa uye dzinodudzwa kazhinji kazhinji mumhaka dzamaruramiro avagari vemo. Inodzivirira vakuru vakuru vehurumende panzvimbo isina kuputsa maruramiro akasimbiswa zvakajeka kana kuti ebumbiro remitemo ayo munhu ane mufungo aizoziva. Uku kudzivirira kazhinji kazhinji kunoda kuti dare rinzvere kana mutemo wacho “wakatangwa zvakajeka” panguva yechinoitika chacho – bhawa rakakwirira iro kazhinji kazhinji rinoguma nokudzikwa kwezvirevo mukurwisana namapurisa, varindiri vetorongo, uye vamwe vashandi voruzhinji.

Dzimwe dziviriro dzinozivikanwa navose dzinobatanidza kudzivirirwa kwakakwana (nokuda kwavaiti vemitemo, vachuchisi, uye vatongi vanoita mumasimba avo apamutemo), kudzivirirwa kwoutongi (hurumende haigoni kupiwa mhaka pasina kubvumira kwayo), uye mutemo weganhuriro (unosiana kupfurikidza nokutaura uye simba).

Kuisa Pfungwa Pachinhu Chimwe uye Kudzipa

Mukutonga kwedare redare rinobetsera vatongi, kuumbwa kwedare rinobetsera kupesvedzera migumisiro. Mativi ose ari maviri ane mukana wokubvunza vatongi vanobvira mukati menhambo yakakomba uye kurova avo vanoratidza rusaruro. Zvinetso zvekutsiva hazvigoni kushandiswa kubvisa vatongi vakavakirwa padzinza kana kuti kuva murume, sezvinoumbwa mu Batson v. Kentucky [1986]. Mirayiridzo yedare, yakarondwa nedare nemubatanidzwa nemapoka ose ari maviri, inofanira kushandisa mipimo yepamutemo.

Mhaka Dzinozivikanwa Nekodzero Dzevagari Vemo: Mienzaniso uye Nzira Iyo Matare Anodzisarudza Nayo

Kuenzanisira idzi nheyo, rangarira marudzi anowanzotaurwa ekodzero dzevanhu kumatare.

Rusaruro Rwebasa

Matare akaunzwa pasi peTitle VII kana kuti Age Discrimination in Obster Act kazhinji kazhinji anotsamira pakuti chikonzero chakataurwa chomushandi nokuda kwokupfura, kukundikana kutsigira, kana kuti kunetsa mushandi ipembedzo yorusaruro. Dare rinonzvera mitoo yetsika, ufakazi hwakaenzanisirwa, uye mirauriro. Mu Walton v. Johnson & Johnson Services, Inc. [20222]), Muteshivindi wePuremhthia yakasimbisazve kuti mutengi anofanira kuratidza kuti chiratiso chakadzivirirwa chakanga chiri “kapo nokuda kwedaro yeda. ”

Kana mushandirwi akabudisa ufakazi hwezvikonzero zvakadaro, mupurisa anofanira kuratidza kuti ndezvenhema kana kuti kusarura murongi wacho kwakasunda chaizvoizvo chisarudzo chacho.

Rusaruro Rwokugara

MuPasi peFair Honging Act, vatongi vanogona kudenha kuramba kwerusarura, kutengesa, kana kuti dzimba dzemari, kana kuti mashoko okupa mhaka nemigariro. Matare anoshandisa gadziriro yakafanana yokuisa mutoro. Anorangarirawo zvikumbiro zve zvinoparira njodzi[, apo mutemo usingatori rutivi unokuvadza zvikuru boka rinodzivirirwa. Dare rapamusoro rakatsigira rondedzero yokuparadza rondedzero mu . . .Indandanda yeMitemo yeProjekiti yeMarimendi neMitemo yeUNICEF:3],[FLT] (2017]), asi yakanyevera kuti kutaura kwakadaro kunofanira kutsigirwa nouchapupu hwezvikamu zvinosimbisa.

Rusununguko Rwokutaura Nokutaura

Nhau dzeFirst Amendment dzinowanzobatanidza vashandi vavanhu vose vachitaura pamusoro penhau dzeitiro hanya yavose, vashori vanobvumidza ganhuriro dzinodenha, kana kuti vadzidzi vanoshandisa kutaura muzvikoro. Dare rinoshandisa mipimo yakasiana - siana kuchitsamira panzvimbo yenhau: mabumbiro avose egamuchidzanwa (mapakipo,) anogamuchira dziviriro hurusa; mahoro oruzhinji akaganhurirwa avanhu (makamuri emisangano ehurumende) anobvumira nguva ine mufungo, nzvimbo, uye ganhuriro dzomuitiro; masangano avanhu vose (hurumende) anobvumira ganhuriro dzakakura zvikuru kwazvo sezvo achiva neasingarangariri uye ane mufungo.

Mu SAUDLEFF v. City of Boston [202], Dare Rapamusoro rakataura kuti Boston yakaputsa First Amendment kupfurikidza nokuramba kupfura mureza wechiKristu pamureza weguta pashure pokubvumira mamwe mapoka kubhururuka mureza. Dare rakasimbisa rusaruro rwemirangariro harwubvumirwi muimba yavose.

Kupa Kodzero

Kupa mhaka dzekodzero kazhinji kazhinji kunobatanidza denho kumitemo yeID yevhoti, mepu dzinovhota, uye nzvimbo dzokuvhota. Matare anoyera kana muitiro unodenhwa une chinangwa choupamhi kana kuti muuyo pasi peChikamu 2 cheChikamu cheChiratidzo cheRevoting Rights Allen v. Millligan [2023], Dare rapamusoro rakatsigira chisarudzo chakatanhamara chokuti mepu yeConstionation yeAlabama inovaira zvimwe inovanza simba rokuvhotera Bla mukuputiswa kweChikamu 2, kusimbisa kuti kutaura kwokuzvitsvuku kwakavakirwa padzinza kunoramba kuripo.

Kunzvera kwokungwarira kunoshanda kumitemo inoremedza zvakakomba kodzero yokuvhota, nepo kunzvera kuduku kunoshanda kuganhuriro duku.

Zvimiro Zvendangariro Zvemisi Ichangobva Kupfuura Nezvinoitika Zvinocherekedzwa

Chisarudzo cheDare rapamusoro rekodzero dzevanhu chinochinja nguva dzose. Mumakore achangobva kupfuura aya, matare akataura nezvokushandiswa kwemapurisa kwesimba, kodzero dzokuchinja mamiriro ezvinhu, pokugara kworudzidziso, uye kuva woga kwemitemo. Chisarudzo cheDare Rapamusoro mu Bostock v. Clayton County [20]) chaidavira kuti kurambidza kwechidhinha kusarura vatano kunofukidza chimiro chevatano nechiratidzo chevatano, kukura kwekodzero dzavanhu.

Imwe kombamiro inowedzera kushandiswa kwokupesana napamutemo kweChikamu 1983 nokuda kwesimba rakanyanyisa, kukundikana kupindira, uye kunzvera kusiri kwapamutemo. Matare anopfuurira kuchenesa mupimo unokwaniriswa wokudzivisa zvirwere, nedzimwe nyika dzichiisa mitemo kuganhurira dziviriro mukutaura kwedare rehurumende. Mukuwedzera, kukura kwechisarudzo chemitemo mukurovha uye dzimba kwakanyandura kukwiriraniswa kutsva mumitemo inorwisana nekurwisana, sezvo matare anorwisana kana miitiro yeIP ine revo yakashata ichigona kuputsa mitemo yavagari vemo.

Nokuda kwokuravazve, bvunza nhungamiro yapamutemo kubva panzvimbo yepaIndaneti U.S. panhau dzekodzero dzavagari vemo, ACLU] mapeji ekodzero dzevanhu [, uye [[FLT]] Kubviswa kweRuramisiko rwechivo-voruzhinji.

Mugumisiro: Vagari vomunharaunda Vanofanira Kuziva

Matare anosarudza nyaya dzekodzero dzevanhu kuburikidza negadziriro inoranga inodzikamisa kodzero dzevanhu nezvinofarirwa nevoruzhinji. Mupurisa wacho anofanira kupa ufakazi hunovimbika, anofanira kusvitsa mutoro unoshanda wouchapupu, uye kuongorora mhinganidzo dzakadai sechiito chokuramba uye kupfupikisa. Dare rinoshandisa nheyo dzebumbiro remitemo, mashoko emitemo, uye miganhu yokusarudza kana kuputsa kwakaitika. Zvinhu zvakafanana nesimba rouchapupu, kujeka kwerudyi, uye kuwanikwa kwedziviriro zvose zvinoumba mugumisiro wokupedzisira.

Nokuda kwavagari vemo vanorangarira dare rekodzero dzavagari vemo, kunzwisisa idzi nheyo dzinokosha. Kubvunza gweta rine ruzivo rwokuzviwanira, kuunganidza ufakazi hwenhambo nenhambo kunokosha nhano dzokutanga dzinotambudza. Nepo tsika isina kukwana, inoramba iri nzira huru yokusimbisa nayo zvipikirwa zvokuenzana norusununguko zvinorondedzera mutemo weAmerica. Kupfurikidza nokuziva kuti matare anosarudza sei mhaka dzakadaro, vagari vemo vanogona kutora rutivi nenzira inobudirira zvikuru mukurondwa kweruramisiro.