Kodzero yokutonga nedare rinobetsera vatongi vasingasaruri ndeimwe yedziviriro dzinokosha zvikurusa mugadziriro yemitemo yeAmerica, ichibatira secherekedzo yakananga pasimba rehurumende uye chipikirwa chokururama nokuda kwomupomeri. Ichochi, chakachengetwa neSandement yechitanhatu ndokushandiswa kumatare ehurumende kupfurikidza neKineth Amendment, chinoisa rutongeso rwavagari vemowo zvavo panzvimbo yedare reruramisiro. Gadziriro iyo iyi isina ruramisiro inounganidzwa inozivikanwa sechisarudzo chedare, kana kuti muitiro unowirirana nemitemo yemitemo, yemitemo, yetsika, uye yendangariro. Kunzwisisa kuti tsika dzemitemo dzinovavarira sei kuita muedzo wakarurama, mumwe anofanira kutanga kunzwisisa muitiro wakakomba uye wakasanoshandiswa zvikuru kusarudza avo vachapa mutongo.

Mutemo Wakagadzwa Nokuda Kwokusasarura

Mavambo edare rinobetsera vatongi anogona kurondwa kusvikira kuMagna Carta, asi chimiro chayo chazvino uno muUnited States muuyo wakananga weSangano rinosavimba naVavambi vechiremera chedare neroukuru. Sixth Amendment inovimbisa zvakajeka kuti "mupomerwi achafarikanya kodzero yokutonga kwapamhene uye kwavose, nedare risina dare umo mhaka dzichava dzaitwa. Dare Gurusa renhau rakaomerera nguva dzose kuti vimbiso iyi ide kuti vatongi vakwende mumanyuko anomirira diviti inoyera yenzanga. Iyi "muchinjikwakwakwakwakwakwakwakwakwakwakwakwa. Chinodikanwa ichi hachisi chinodikanwa chakarurama kudare rakananga, chinowirirana padare rokupedzisira, asi chinotonzi chiva neboka rokutanga revanenge rinenge richigerekirirwa muboka rinoteverwa. [F]

Kuunganidza Chivako: Hwaro hweJuri

Muitiro wokusarudza vatongi unovamba kare mutongi upi noupi asati abvunza mutongi anobvira. Kunotanga nokuumbwa kwendaza yedare redare redare redare. Matare anowanzowana mazita kubva mumapepa erezero revhoti, marongedzero evhoti, uye mune dzimwe nzvimbo, mapepa emitero kana kuti zvinyorwa zvemakadhi ehurumende. Nharidzano yeiyi nhano yokutanga ndeyokugadzira dziva guru nerakasiyana-kasiana ravagari vemo umo vanokwanisa kushevedzera.

Munhau, matare akawanda akashandisa "Key Man" gadziriro, umo vamiririri vedare redare redare redare redare vakasarudza mitezo yenzanga yakatanhamara kuti itsaure vamwe. Iyi gadziriro yakanga iri inotapurwa zvikuru netsarirano uye yakashandiswa nenzira inopfuurira kubvisa vagari vemo veAfrica navamwe vashoma kubva mumajaji, zvikurukuru kuMadokero. Chisarudzo neBasa reSangano reSangano reSangano reHurumende mu 1968 zvakabudirira nokusarudza zvinangwa, zvikasavapo. Pasinei zvapo neiyi fambiro mberi, zvinetso zvazvino uno zvinopfuurira. Nhamba dzakakwirira dzevasiri vagari vemo, vagari vemo vemo venguva dzose, kana kuti vanhu vane kero dzenguva duku pamaro ehurumende dzinogona kuiswa pasi. Dare redare rino rinofanira kuvimbisa manyuko adzokororwa uye kudzorwa kushatswa kuputsa zvinodikanwa zvokuyambuka. Pakare, vanodanwa nokuda kwezvikwaro zvikuru, vane makore, vanonzwisisa, uye kukwanisa kutendeka nokuda kwemiteveri yedare rinosara.

Unyanzvi Nesayenzi Yezviyo Zvinorira

"Voir orash," yakabva murevo yeFrench Yekare "kutaura zvokwadi," mutoo wokubvunza wakakomba wakagadzirirwa kuzivisa rusaruro. Icho nenzira isingapanikirwi rutivi rwakanakisisa rwechisarudzo chedare rinobetsera. Mutongi, muchuchisi, uye murwiri wegweta mumwe nomumwe ane basa rokuita mukufumura rusarura rungagona kudzivisa mutongi kusarudza mhaka yacho chose chose paufakazi hunopiwa mudare.

Mukati menhau dzinotyisa, dzinobvira kuva vatongi dzinobvunzwa pamhatsa huru yemisoro. Vanamajeri vanonzvera mamiriro ezvinhu ehuru hwehutongi, basa, dzidzo, uye zvinoitika zvomunhu oga, zvikurukuru avo vangawirirana nenhau yacho. Vanobvunza pamusoro pezivo yenhau yacho inobva kunhau dzinobva kunhau dzinotepfenyura, kurovedzana nezvapupu kana kuti magweta, uye mirangariro pamusoro penheyo dzapamutemo. Somuenzaniso, mumhaka yeutsotsi, mutongi anobvira angabvunzwa kana achigona kuisa zvapachokwadi mukwirirwi asina mhaka uye anoda kupomerwa kubvumikisa kuva nemhaka isingapanikirwi nezvino mufungo. Mutongi uyo anobvuma kuti anopomerwa kupupurira kana kuti anodavira kuti kusungwa kuri mudariro wemhosva.

Zvinangwa Zvakanakira Kubvunza Vatairi Vezvinhu Zvikuru

Bvunzurudzo inobatira donzo remativi maviri. Rokutanga nderokuunganidza mashoko kururamisa denho nokuda kwechisakiso kana kuti kuzivisa chirango. Wechipiri ndeyekunyengetedza nedzidzo. Magweta anopesvedzera anoshandisa kunyanyisa kusuma misoro mikuru yenhau yavo, kuisa vatongi mukurwisana noufakazi hunokuvadza hunogona kubuda mukati mokutongwa, uye kutanga kuvanza ukama. Gweta rinodzivirira angatsvaka vatongi vanokoshesa kodzero dzomunhu mumwe nomumwe uye vanopanikira chiremera, nepo muchuchidzi angava nebata avo vane batano yakasimba nedaviso yomutemo. Patrovey anotarirawo nokuda kwe "va juth jurs"." murwi angava akavanzika namaune simba kuti arote mudavi mururaniso uye azive murudzo.

Michina Yokutsiva: Chisakiso Nekupikirwa Zvinorovanya

Pavanobvunzwa vanoratidza kuti pane kusarura kusingagoni kurapwa nomurayiridzo womutongi, magweta ane zvinhu zviviri zvokushandisa kubvisa mutongi wacho: zvinetso zvinokonzera dambudziko uye zvinopedza matambudziko.

Matambudziko

Denho nokuda kwechisakiso chikumbiro kumutongi kudzinga mutongi nokuda kwechikonzero chakananga, chemadhimoni. Izvi zvikonzero hazvina kuganhurirwa, asi mienzaniso inozivikanwa inobatanidza kubvuma kwemhosho yetsarudzo paboka redzinza, ukama hwomunhu oga nomumwe wemapato, murangariro wakagadzwa pamusoro pemhosva yomukwiridzi, kana kuti kusakwanisa kushandisa mutemo sezvawakarayirwa, zvakadai sechishongo chegumbe kuchirango chorufu mumhaka yerufu. Hapana muganhu kuchiverengero chezvinetso nokuda kwokuparira gweta ungaita. Mutongi angaita seakiribhiri, anotonga mhinduro dzomutongi uye anosarudza kana kusarura kwacho kuri chaiko kana kuti kushatiswa. Kana mutongi achiramba denho yacho, mutongi anofanira kuyera kana munhu achifanira kubvisa mhaka yacho.

Zvinetso Zvinoparirwa Nedzidziso Yedambudziko

Zvinetso zvinovhiringidza zvinenge zvichingova chishandiso chine simba asi chinomutsa nharo. Vanobvumira gweta kuti ridzingwe mutongi pasina kutaura chikonzero. Nhoroondo yenhau ndeyokuti magweta ane ruzivo rwokuberekwa narwo pamusoro peruramisiro yedare ringaoma kutsanangura. Chiverengero chekuboora chinoganhurirwa zvikuru nomutemo, zvikurukuru kubva pa3 kusvika ku10 zvichitsamira paukombi hwepomero nechiremera.

Kushandiswa kusingadzorwi kwedenho dzokuparadza kwakavasarira zera rakapararira munhau. Vatongi vose veAfrica vaitonga vaipinda mudare reMitezo yeBlack vaiedza vapomeri. Uyu muitiro wakadenhwa muchinyorwa cha 1986 Supreme Court Batson v. Kentucky. Dare rairangarira kuti kushandiswa kwomuchuchisi wetsoropodzo kubvisa zvinetso zvedzinza pahwaro hwedzinza rinoputsa dziviriro yeIniverdalet Redelete. Chisarudzo chakagadza muitiro wenhatu we [[FLT] .BSON]

  1. Mushori wokurova anofanira kutanga prima facie mhaka yokuti kurova kwacho kwaisundwa nedzinza.
  2. Boka rinoshamisa rinofanira kupa tsananguro yokuti kurova kwacho kwave kusiri kwechitendero.
  3. Mutongi anofanira kusarudza kana tsananguro yakapiwa iri chikonzero chokusarura kune chinangwa.

[[FLT: 0] kubata [[FLT: 1] kwakatambanudzwa gare gare kurova kwakavakirwa pachinhu chomunhurume (J.E.B. v. Alabama, 1994) uye rudzi. Pasinei zvapo neiyi dziviriro, dzidziso yave ichitsoropodzwa zvikuru nokuda kwokuva asingashandi. Nemhaka yokuti munyori anogona kugovera chinenge chikonzero chipi nechipi chedzinza chenhau. Ichi chakaparira kufamba kwa "karena," "Kushaya onano yeziso," kana kuti "kurarama munzvimbo yakakwirira-rimi" , .[5]

Kutyisidzira Kwokusasarura Kwazvino Uno

Kunyange kana vakasarudza zvakasimba, kusasarura kwedare rinobetsera vatongi kunogona kubvumiraniswa nezvisakiso zviri kunze kwedare.

Kuburitswa Kwamapepanhau Nezvinobudisa Nhau Zvenzanga

Zviitiko zvine mativi makuru zvinoparira nzvero huru yezvinobudisa nhau inogona kuita kuti kuve kusingabviri kuwana vatongi vasina kuratidzirwa kumashoko anofungira mano akaipa. Mumigariro yakadaro, matare angashandisa "chinjo yenzvimbo," kuendesa kutonga kuruwa rwakasiana kana kuti nyika uko kusingaparadzirwi. Vatongi vangapawo mirairo yokudzivisa magweta nemapoka kutaura kupepanhau. Mupimo wakakomba zvikurusa ichengedziso, umo vatongi vanoparadzaniswa muhotera ndokudzivisa kuva neonano nenyika iri kunze nokuda kwenguva yokutongwa.

Masangano anosimudzira mamiriro ezvinhu anovhura zvinhu zvakaoma zvikuru. Zvino yava muitiro kuti magweta atsvake nhau dzesocial social resociation dzinotaura nezvemagariro avanhu panguva yavanotya kutsvaka ufakazi hwe rusaruro kana kuti mararamiro. Nenzira yakapesana, kusazvibata kunobva munzanga kupfurikidza nezvinobudisa nhau dzemagariro avanhu. Kufanana nokuisa uchapupu paIndaneti kana kuti kunzvera ufakazi hwepaIndaneti. Iye zvino 2022 parakaro inopfuudzwa ne .[FLT] National Center yeState for State Courts] [FLT] yakawana kuti kushandisa Internet kunzvera kunoramba chinetso. Vatongi zvino vanopa mirayiridzodza pamutemo kunzvera paInternet Internet kana kuti matare okukurukurirana.

Mabhiya Akakwana uye Kusarudza Chirango Chesayenzi

Mumwe muganhu mukuva nechokwadi chokuva norusaruro rwakakwana. Kunyange mutongi akatendeseka zvikurusa angachengeta mirangariro yokusangwarira kana kuti songaniro dzinotapura kurangarirwa kwavo kwoufakazi. Madare ari kutanga kubvuma iyi idi. Vamwe vatongi zvino vanopa miraidzo yefungira mano akaipa" kumutsigiri pamberi pokuvamba kwakaipa, kuvadzidzisa pamusoro pomufungo wacho uye kuvakurudzira kubvisa kufungira mano akaipa kusingazivi. Muzvimwe zviitiko, zvapupu zvine unyanzvi zvinounzwa kuti zvipupure pamusoro pemigumisiro yemirangariro neyeuko yakakwana.

Kusarudza vatongi veSayenzi kunomutsawo mibvunzo yetsika. Sangano rinokura ravapi zano vedare rinobetsera vatongi rinoshandisa mapoka akananga, kutongwa kwokunyepedzera, uye kunzvera kwavagari vemo kwakaoma kubetsera magweta kusarudza vatongi vakanaka. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti uyu muitiro unosekesa pfungwa yedare rinomirira vatongi kupfurikidza nokuchinja rovedzo yezvokusarudza kuva yezvokurapa, rovedzo yeavhoriyari apo vavariro iri kufanotaura zvishuvo zvevariro dzejaritari pane kungofumura mirangariro yakakomba. Vatsigiri vanopikisa kuti inongova bedzi nzira inoziva zvikuru yokuita nayo dare rakaipa munhau dzakaoma.

Kutanga Kuchinja Zvinhu Nenguva Yemberi Yokusarudza Vasina Kutsarukana

Gadziriro yokusarudza vatongi haisati iri yakaremara. Mumhinduro kuzvikanganiso zve Batson dzidziso nedenho dzenhambo yemitauro, mativi enyika anoverengeka ari kuita chinjo dzakasimba. Dzimwe nyika dziri kufamba kuti dzibvise zvinetso zvokudzima chose chose, dzichiramba kuti zvakaipa zvakagadzirirwa mutsika kudzivirira zvino zvakadzikamiswa nerusaruro rwadzinobvumira. Dzimwe, kufanana neHurumende, dzakaita mupimo wapamutemo mutsva wokuwana denho. Washington Court yenhau yapamusoro ye National. Jefferf inodzivisa kushandiswa kwezvinetso zvinodzikwa kunze kwedonzo, chisakiso chisati chiripo chinogona kubviswa, kubviswa pachirongwa chiono chapamutemo. Chino chapauro chenhau chapamhene kunanga kumugumo nechino chapamutemo kuiyi donzo. Chino chinovarira kuidzodzodzodzodzodzo huru.[FLT.]

Zvimwe zvinjo dzinonangidzira ngwariro pakuvandudza kuva mumiriri wedare redare rinotonga. Mitemo iri kubvisa kusawirirana kwakavakirwa padzinza navakuru veboka kupfurikidza nokubvisa kusafanira kwechigarire nokuda kwavafenzi, kufutunura manyuko kuti zvibatanidze mitsetse yemijenya neinishuwarenzi yokusashanda, uye kuderedza chiverengero chepembedzo pabasa (zvakadai sokuregeredzwa kwebasa nokuda kwamagweta, vanachiremba, navakuru vakuru vehurumende). Idzi donzo rinovavarira kuva nechokwadi chokuti vatongi varatidzire zvirokwazvo hana yenzanga, kuita kuti muitiro wechisarudzo chedare rinotonga vatongi vave ruramisiro mururamisiro nokuda kwomunhu ari wose anobatanidzwa. [[FLT:][FLT][F: 1]][FLT]][FLT][F: 1]][FLT]][F: 1][FLT]][F]][FLG]][F:1]]

mhedziso

Gadziriro yokusarudza vatongi inopfuura zvikuru chipingamupinyi chokutonga. Inzira yebumbiro remitemo umo mufungo wedare risingasaruri unorondwa uye unotendwa nenzira isina kukwana. Kuvambira pakuraira kusina kurongwa kwavagari vemo kusvikira kurwisano dzakakomba kusingachinjiki pamusoro pekudenha nokusawirirana nokuda kwechisakiso, nhano iri yose yevhiri yakakomba inhamburiko yamaune kuvaka ruramisiro isina mufungo nechisarudzo chakananga. Muitiro unovanzaniswa nguva dzose, uchidzikamisa kodzero dzemaganhunhurirwa nekodzero dzemitemo dzechikwararara chapamutemo nekodzero dzenzanga kutora rutivi. Nepo pasina muitiro unogona kuvimbisa kusasarura kwakakwana, kwakajeka, kunojeka, uye kusarura kwakananga, uye kuisa dare rinotonga mutemo wavose unoramba uri mugadziriro inovimbika zvikurusa inotendwa nokuvimbika yavose mumutemo womutemo.