Nheyo Dzenhau DzaChangamire Dzisingawirirani

Dzidziso yokuzvitonga kwehurumende inotonga, yakavakirwa mumashoko muparem honor genium (munhu akaenzana haana simba paakaenzana), yakabuda kubva kumagamuchidzanwa echizivikanwo chenyika dzeEurope. Muchimiro chayo chekare, dzidziso yakadzivirirwa pasututi mumatare okumwe sechiratidzo chokuremekedzana uye kuenzana pakati pevatongi. Dare repamusoro-soro rakanangidzira nheyo iyi mu Sbags Exchange v. M'addon[FLT] [FG] [12] [1812], rikabata kuti vatongi vokumwe vadzorwi veAmerica vaidzorwi vachibva kudzoreshivi yenyika neyavanhu. Nokuda kwezana ramakore rechi20 rapakuvamba, rinoshandiswa seripomedzo hurusa yezvipotidzo, rinodzora yetsikadzo, risingarevitidzo yetsika yetsika yetsika yetsika yetsika yetsika iri pasi penyika.

Kuchinja kubva mukudzivisa kuzvidzivirira kwakakwana kuenda kukudzivirira dziviriro kunoganhurira kwakawedzera pashure peHondo yeNyika II, kuchisundwa nokubatanidzwa kwakawedzerwa kwehurumende mumabasa ezvokutengeserana. Changamire weNyika Dzakasiyana weU.Immunies Act (FISIA) yakabatanidza uku kuita kunoganhurira, kuchibvisa mufambiro wezvokutengeserana padziviriro nepo ichichengeta dziviriro nokuda kwezviito zvavose. Mitemo yakafanana yemitemo yakabuda muEurope neAsia, ichiratidzira bvumirano yokuti kushanda savatori vemibato vemusika hakufaniri kufarikanya dziviriro isingadzorwi. Bva izvi zvokushandisa zvakataura zvishomanene pamusoro pokuputswa kwekodzero dzavanhu, kuchiparira nzvimbo yepamutemo yokuti zvizvarwa gare gare gare zvavatongi zvaizoparapatirwa kuzadza.

Kuwedzera Kwekodzero Dzevanhu Munyika Yose

Pashure pa1945 chinjo yamaruramiro avanhu yakashandura zvikurukuru mamiriro emitemo yamarudzi ose. Nokugamuchirwa kwe Declaration of Human Rights muna 1948, inozivisa nenzira yakarongwa kuti vanhu vaiva nekodzero dzakapfuura miganhu yenyika. Zvibvumirano . Zvibvumirano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dare renyika yose routsotsi rakakudziridza izvi zvinoitika. Kutongwa kweNuremberg kwakatanga kuti vanhu vaigona kunzi vakafanirwa nemhosva nokuda kwezviito zvinoitwa muruvara rwechiremera chehurumende, kuboora chifukidzo chouchangamire. International Criminal Court , yakatangwa neRome Signalte muna 1998, yakawedzerazve kuzvidavirira kwemhosva yomunhu oga mumutemo wamarudzi ose. Iyi mibato yaisataura zvakananga nezvezvipfeko zvehurumende zvinorwisana nehurumende, asi yakaita mhoteredzo inowirirana umo misengwa yekodzero dzavanhu yairangarirwa semitoro mikuru zvikuru kudzidziso dzegamuchidzanwa dzehurumende yokudzivirira.

Masangano ekodzero dzevanhu uye nyanzvi dzemitemo dzakataura kuti kupa nyika kodzero yokuzvidzivirira pakutambudzwa kana kuti kuurayiwa kwevanenge vaurayiwa nemhosva kwakarambwa nenzira inobudirira, kunoguma nokusawirirana nechinangwa chomutemo wekodzero dzevanhu.

Nharo Dzemanyoro

Denho yedzidziso ine simba zvikurusa kurwisa dziviriro yehurumende yakabuda mumurangariro we jus cogens. Vatsigiri vakarangarira kuti mirau yeSabatadzo, kupfurikidza nerondedzero, inopfuura mutemo upi noupi unorwisana wamarudzi ose, kubatanidza mitemo yehurumende inodzivisa kuzvidzivirira. Kana kutambudzwa kusingadzoreki, ivo vanorambidzwa, havagoni kuva nehurumende inodzivisa kudzivirira sututi yavagari vemo inobuda mukutambudzwa. Dare reInternational Court raitaura iyi procestion in Juristivation Immuniontial Itritan yeHurumende (Germany v. Italy)[FLT] [202], risingabvumiri kuti kugadzirirwa kwemitemo yemitemo yakasiana nokubudirira nokuda kwekurangarira ruramisiro.

Mutemo Wenhau Huru Nezviitiko Zvinopomerwa

Kwemakumi emakore matare edzimba ave achinetseka nemibvunzo iyi, zvichiita kuti pave nemitemo yakakamukana asi inoramba ichipindirana.

Kuparwa Kwemagwenya Kunoitwa muAlien Tort

MuUnited States, chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa mu [[FLT: 0] Aleen Tort Egt [200] chakagovera hwaro hwesimba nokuda kwamarudzi okumwe kuti vakwirire nokuda kwokuputswa kwomutemo wamarudzi ose. Chisarudzo cheDare Rapamusorosarudzo mu [[FLT:] Sosa] v. Alvarez-Machain[FLT] [2003] [2014]) yakaziva kuti kutaura kwaATS kungagona kupfuurira mumapoka mashoma etsika dzinogamuchirwa munyika yose. Kupfuurirazverwa kwemitemo yenyika yose yamarudzi ose kwaidzokashambadzira zviremera zvamamwe mativi enyika. Mu [FLT:] Mune dare rinorema. [FLT] raidzorobel.[5]

Pasinei zvapo nemhinganidzo idzi, kodzero dzevanhu dzinopesana nekodzero dzokuzvidzivirira pawwner dzakararama mumiganhu yakaganhurirwa. Kuparadza kweFSIA kwougandanga, kwakaitwa muna 1996 uye kwakawedzera muna 2008, kunobvumira zvisututi zvinorwisana nehurumende dzinonzi dzinotsigira ugandanga nokuda kwezviito zvokutambudza, kuuraya kwomuraudzo, uye kuuraya vanhu. Kusiya uku kunoratidza mutongo wezvematongerwe enyika uyo nyika dzakarasikirwa nokudzivirirwa kwadzo kupfurikidza nokutyorwa kwadzorwa kwakarongwa kwekodzero dzevanhu.

Matare eEurope Nechinjo Inoganhurira

Dare reEurope rokusatapurwa kwekodzero dzevanhu rave richishanda zvikuru. Dare reEurope reMagariro avanhu mu Al-Adsani v. United Kingdom (2001) rakaramba kudzivirira jugs panhau yokutambudzwa, kunongedzera kutsika. Zvisinei, Dare reMitemo yeMitemo yeItaria mu Deciation No. 238 (14] yakadenha zvakananga kudzivirira jastitution ICJ’IIcrigion Immic, ichiita kuti matare eItaly anzwe pamusoro peGermany nemhaka yetsika dzakashata nemhaka yemitemo yorudyi mumutemo yamarudzi ose asingagoni kudzikamiswa pasi pose.

Matare echiGiriki akaisawo miganhu nenzira yakafanana. Margellos v. Federal Republic yeGermany (2002], Dare Gurusa rechiGiriki pakutanga rairamba kudzivirirwa nokuda kwemhosva dzehondo dzeNazi, kutozochinjwa bedzi neDare Rapamusoro Zvikuru reChirevo pazvikonzero zvinodzorwa. Dare reGerman Federal Constitution rakatora mutoo wezve, kusimbisa dziviriro kunyange mumhaka dzinobatanidza kupunzirwa kwekodzero dzavanhu kwakakomba, kugovera mishonga inotsiva iripo.

Mipiro yokuLatin America uye yeNyika Yose yeSouth

Matare muGlobal South akabatanidza nenzira inowedzera iyi mibvunzo, kazhinji kazhinji mumurangariro unoisa maruramiro avanhu pauchangamire hwegamuchidzanwa. Dare reCommunist Constitution, mu Decision C-788 (2011]), akarangarira kuti kuputswa kwekodzero dzavanhu kwakakomba kungagona kuumba kupesana kwapamutemo kudzivirira dziviriro, zvikurukuru apo vanyajambwa vangadai vasina nzira yokuzvitsiva nayo. Dare rapamusoro reArgentina rakava nesundo dzokurwisana nemhosva dzokumwe pamusoro porudzi rwomunhu, richireva pamusoro pechinoitika chenhau chavanhu vamene neruramisiro. Izvi zvisarudzo zvinoratidzira kuzivikanwa kunokura kukura kuti dzidziso inodzivisa dziviriro yapamutemo inofanira kuchinjika maruramiro avanhu, zvikurukuru munzvimbo umo masimba masimba aparira kutambura.

Miitiro Yokurwisana Nokuyanana

Kusawirirana pakati pouchangamire nekodzero dzevanhu hakusi kungodzidzisa dzidziso chete; kunoreva zvinhu chaizvo pakukurukurirana, ukama hwehurumende, uye kubhadhara nyajambwa.

Diplomatic Protection ne State-tom- State Negotiation

Apo matare edzimba anoramba kunzwa kutaura kwekodzero dzavanhu mukurwisana nenyika dzokumwe, vanyajambwa vangatendeukira kudziviriro yehurumende yavo vamene yehurumende: nyika yavo inotsigira kutaura kupfurikidza nemikoto yemibatanidzwa. Iyi nzira, inobvumwa neICJ, inochengeta dziviriro yapamutemo ichivapa mishonga inobvira. Zvisinei, inoisa chisarudzo chokuronda chose chose mumaoko enyika yenyajambwa, ingarega kuita chiito nokuda kwezvikonzero zvamatongerwe enyika. The International Law Commission’s Distap Thection Proget on Diplomatic Protection (2006) inorumbidza kupa rangariro yakafanira yakafanira yokushandisa dziviriro yokukurukurirana nehurumende, zvikurukuru apo kuvadziko inoparira kuvadziko huru yakaitika, asi pasina musengwa unobatira.

Chibvumirano Chinotsamira Pazvakasiyana - siyana Newaiver

Dzimwe nyika dzakapinda muzvibvumirano zvechibharo kana kuti zvakawanda zvinochinja kudzivirira maruramiro avanhu. United Nations Convention on Jurisditional Immunial Immunity of States neHumwe Hwavo [2004], nepo zvisati zvava nesimba, zvinosanganisira kupesana kwebhizimisi muChikamu 10 asi zvikurukuru kubvisa kodzero dzavanhu. Convention inoronga kubudisa miganhu yakapinza pakati pehurumende inoda kudzivirirwa kwakafara uye avo vanosimudzira nokuda kwenhau dzokuputsa kodzero dzakakomba dzavanhu.

Michina Yokutsiva

Yavhiringidzwa nemiganhu yedare, dzimwe nyika dzakatanga mitoo yokudzorwa yedzoro yehurumende kuti dzitaure kuputswa kwekodzero dzevanhu. Foundation "Remembrance, Mutoro nePureasure" yakagovera muripo kune vaichimbova vashandi vanomanikidzirwa mukati menhambo yeNazi, kugadzikisa kutaura kwokuti kudai zvisina kufanira mamiriro ezvinhu ehurumende okudzora mumitemo mizhinji. Italy yakagadza mari yeVanyajambwa veHondo dzeHondo kuti itsive vanyajambwa veutsinye hweNazi pashure pokunge yatonga mu Jurissionalmism Immunial Immunity .

Makakatanwa Enguva Yemberi Nenhungamiro Dzenguva Yemberi

Miitiro inoverengeka iri kumuka uye mibvunzo isina kugadziriswa zvichaumba kushanduka - shanduka kwayo mumakumi emakore ari kuuya.

Chikamu Chokurwisana Nemarrorism Context

Post-9/11 Kupa mhaka kwakawedzera kupesana kwougandanga, zvikurukuru muUnited States neCanada. Mutongi Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA) (2016) akabvumira sututi kurwisana nehurumende dzokumwe nokuda kwamabasa ougandanga anoitwa muUnited States, kudzora kudzivirira mamiriro ezvinhu akati. Uyu mutemo wakaparira gakava rinokosha, nehurumende dzokumwe dzichinyevera kuti kwaizokanganisa ukama hwamarudzi ose ndokusekesa uchangamire. Saudi Arabia yakatarisana nemhosva dzakawanda pasi pekudenha kwaJAHTA edzorosegi. Izvi zvinoitika zvinomutsa mibvunzo mikuru pamusoro pemiganhu yeparamedzo yeparameterriorioria uye basa rakafanira rematare mukutaura nehurumende yougandanga.

Mutoro Nokuoma

Kodzero dzavanhu dzinofungidzirwa kuva dzakarerutsa kana kuti kubetserwa nokushandiswa zvisina kufanira kwekodzero dzavanhu. Doe v. UNT (mhosva ye2002] muUnited States uye ] Vedanta Resources plc v. Lunter [[FLT]] [2029]) muUnited Kingdom yakagadza kuti makambani ari vabereki angava nechikwereti chetarisiro kuvanhu vamwe navamwe mukuputswa kwekodzero dzavo dzavanhu. Nepo izvi zviitiko zvisingadenhesi kupfurikidza nezvinodzivisa zvakananga kushatiswa kwehurumende. Kukura kwekodzero dzavanhu muUnited Kingdom kungaparira mabasa okutarisira vanhu vamwe nokuwedzera kwoutongi hwavo.

Kubatana Kwavakuru Vakuru Vehurumende Nevakuru Vehurumende

Mubvunzo unowirirana asi wakajeka une chokuita nokusadzivirirwa kwavakuru vakuru vehurumende nevafundisi vokumwe (_kazhinjisa]) vanodavira kuti vashumiri vokumwe vanofarikanya dziviriro yakazara kubva kuutsotsi nehurumende. ICJ mu [FLT: 0] Nemhaka yemhosva dzehondo. Zvisinei, rutongeso rwakasiya bviro yokuparwa mumatare enyika yose kana kuti pashure pebasa rehurumende. Mhaka ye [FLT:] [2002] [2002] Algn-BBH], yakafarikanya kuzvidzivirira kwakakwana nedare retsoropo mumatare okunzere, kunyange nokuda kwokupomerwa mhosva dzehondo. Zvisinei, Dare repamusoro renyika yose rakavakwa rakaita basa redare renyika yose muSouth Africa. Chivi chakaitwa kuti chitongeriso chedare chehurumende. Chibvumirano cha2017 chakava nedare rehurumende rehurumende reRoma rinodzokororosa renyika yose. Chipomendero chinopupurira kunyange zviremera zvemitemo zvinokukura kurwisana nemitemo yenyika yose.

Masangano Enharaunda Ari Kuitwa

Kupesana kwekodzero dzevanhu dzokuzvidzivirira pazvirwere zvekodzero yokuzvitonga kwakatanga zvisina kuenzana munzvimbo dzakasiyana - siyana, zvichiratidza tsika dzepamutemo dzakasiyana - siyana, zvakaitika kare, uye zvematongerwo enyika.

Europe: Imba Yakakamukana

Nyika dzeEurope dzinoramba dzakakamukana pakati paavo vanonamatira kumutemo wokudzivisa zvirwere wakakomba (Germany, United Kingdom) naavo vanoisa ganhuriro (Italy, Greece, uye, kutambanuko duku, Poland neSlovenia). European Union haina kutaura zvakananga wirirano dzavanhu, dzichisiya nyika dziri mitezo kuti dzifambise nzvimbo iyoyi kupfurikidza nomutemo wenyika nerondedzero yedare redare. Council of Europe’s European Convention on State Immunity (1972) haina kutaura pakodzero dzevanhu, kunyange zvazvo Dare reEurope rekodzero dzavanhu rakaratidza kuti rinofanira kuramba kudzivirirwa panzvimbo panenge pane kutyorwarambwa kwekodzero dzevanhu.

North America: Ugandanga uye Kudzika Midzi Kwakasiyana

United States neCanada zvakawedzera kudzivirira kutyorwa zvikurukuru kupfurikidza nomutemo unoranga vatsigiri vehurumende vougandanga. Mutemo weState Immuny Act wakagadziriswa muna 2012 kuti uite chikanganiso chougandanga, kuchigonesa vanyajambwa kukwikwidza nyika sevatsigiri vougandanga. Nyika dzose dziri mbiri dzinochengeta nzira inoganhurira zvikuru yokudzivirira zvirwere munhau dzebhizimisi asi dzakanyora kodzero dzakananga dzevanhu dzinosiyaniswa nemitemo. Iyi nzira inoratidzira kubvumirana kwechiito chetsikano: matare anozviisa kuvakuru vakuru panhau dzemiitiro yokumwe nyika, nepo vatongi vanoramba kuzvidavirira.

Asia neAfrica: Kubatanidzwazve

Matare muAsia neAfrica ari kutanga kupinda muiyi mibvunzo, kazhinji kazhinji inopesvedzerwa nezvinoitika zvapamutemo zvamarudzi ose. Dare reSouth Africa Constitution, mu Hurumende yeRepublic of South Africa v. Von Abo, inobvuma kuti mutemo wetsika wamarudzi ose wetsika pakudzivisa kukuvadzwa kwaigona kushanduka kuva nekodzero dzavanhu. Zvisinei, matare aya anowanzorega kuita kodzero dzavanhu dzinoteverwa, achiratidzira pamusoro pemiganhuro yeIndia. Aza Bakaolan[[FLT] Anda Ando Ando Andollan [2003] [2003] [i] (]) inobvuma kushanda kwemipimo yetsika yamarudzi ose mukududzira mutemo wenyika. Zvisinei, aya matare anowanzorega kuita kodzero dzavanhu dzinopesana nokudzivirira kudzivirira kudarika mwero.

mhedziso

Kumuka kwemitemo yekodzero dzevanhu munyika yose hakuna kuparadza kudzivirirwa kwekodzero dzevanhu, asi kwakamanikidza matare, vaiti vemitemo, uye nyanzvi kuti vataure mibvunzo isina kunaka pamusoro poukama hwehurumende neruramisiro.

Chisarudzo cheICJ mu Juristional Imminitunies (Germany v. Italy) yakasimbisa kuti hakuna kusiana kwekodzero dzavanhu kuripo mumutemo wetsika wamarudzi ose. Zvisinei, rutongeso haruna kutangira bviro yokuti hurumende dzinogona, kupfurikidza nebvumirano kana kuti mutemo wemhuri, kuita kuti zvive zvakasiana zvakadaro. Chisarudzo chacho hachina kumisa kurukurirano yakarovedzeka: maruramiro avanhu anopfuurira kumanikidza kuzivisa kuti mirangariro yavanhu inofanira kurerutsa miganhuro yemitemo yemitemo kururamisiro. matare edzimba dzinoshanda zvikuru semarabharitaridzo dzemitemo yapamutemo, kunzvera miganhuro yezvisakiso mumhaka yakakomba zvikurusa yamarudzi ose.

Nokuda kwavaiti navaiti vemiitiro, kufamba munzvimbo iyi kunoda nzwisiso yakajeka yomutemo unoshanda muhurumende imwe neimwe. Mubvunzo wacho ndowokuti mirangariro yamaruramiro avanhu inotapurazve dziviriro yekodzero dzavanhu (idzo dzinodaro, uye zvikuru. Mubvunzo ndowenzira yokuyananisa nayo mipimo miviri yakavakirwa panheyo: ruremekedzo rwoumambo uye murairo wokuzvidavirira nokuda kwokuputsa kodzero dzavanhu kwakakomba. Hapana mhinduro imwe yakaoneka, uye hapana ingatongogutsa zvizere vabati vose vane dziviriro. Chiri pachena ndechokuti dzidziso yokudzivisirwa kwouchangamire yave isingadzorwi nokusingaperi nomutemo wekodzero dzavanhu, uye nzvimbo yapamutemo ichapfuurira kushandura senhau itsva, zvibvumirano zvitsva, uye masimba matsva ezvematongerwe enyika.

Nokuda kwokuravazve pamusoro pemhindumupindu yekodzero dzavanhu dzokusatapurwa kwechapamutemo, ona Juristianition Immunication of the State (Germany v. Italy) Rutongeso, [[FLT:]] Convention paJuriscialition Immunitial [, uye rondedzero dzinobva ku [[FLT:]] American Society of International Law [ parigiod renguva ino. Kunzwisisa izvi zvinoitika zvinokosha nokuda kwebasa ripi neripi repamutemo pamhatsa yavose yomutemo wavose, kodzero dzavanhu, uye kudzorwa kwavagari vemo.