Dzidziso Yemhindumupindu Yakachinja Kusunungurwa Kwevagari Vomunyika veAmerica

Munhau yose yapamutemo yeAmerica, nheyo shomanene dzakava netapuro huru zvikuru padziviriro yamaruramiro omunhu mumwe nomumwe kupfuura dzidziso yokubatanidza. Iyi gadziriro yebumbiro remitemo, yakavakirwa muKirenati Amendment, yakagadziridza zvikurukuru ukama pakati pehurumende dzehurumende nerusununguko runovimbiswa neBill of Rights. Kutsigira rusununguko rwechigarikanwa, kunzwisisa kunokosha nemhaka yokuti inogovera hwaro hwapamutemo nokuda kwokupokanidzwa kwenzvimbo yehurumende kunodenha padziviriro huru dzemitemo.

Pamberi pokubatanidzwa, Bill of Rights yakashanda bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende yehurumende, ichisiya nyika dzakasununguka zvikuru kuganhurira kutaura, kuita nzvero isina mufungo, kana kuti kuramba muitiro wakafanira. Dzidziso yokubatanidza yakachinja zvose izvo kupfurikidza nokuita kuti chizhinjisa cheChinyorwa chaMaruramiro ekodzero chive chinomanikidzirwa mukurwisana nehurumende dzomunzvimbomo. Ichi chinjo haina kuitika muusiku humwe; yakabuda nomunhevedzano yezvisarudzo zvenhau zveDare Gurusa reMitemhe yaibatanidza rutivi rukuru rwezana ramakore rechi 20. Muuyo inzvimbo yapamutemo umo kodzero dzinokosha dzinodzivirirwa zvakafanana zvikuru muhurumende dzose dzine makumi mashanu.

Kutangwa kweBumbiro reMitemo Rokutsinhirana

Hwaro hwapamutemo hwokubatanidza huri muKireath Amendment, yakasimbiswa muna 1868. Gwaro raro Grocess Claus rinodudza kuti hakuna hurumende icha "nyika icha "nyika munhu upi noupi woupenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo" Kwamakumi amakore, nyanzvi navatongi vakaitisana nharo kana chitsama ichi chaifanira kushandisa Bill of Rights yose kuhurumende (kubatanidza ukoshi) kana kuti kodzero idzodzo bedzi dzinorangarirwa "kusarudza rusununguko rwokutonga" (kusarudza).

Dare Gurusa pakupedzisira rakagamuchira kubatanidzwa kunosarudza, kushandisa kodzero imwe panguva pahwaro hwenhau nekese. Kunzvera nokuda kwekuti maruramiro akabatanidzwa kunobvunza kana ari "akavakirwa mumurangariro worusununguko rwakarairwa" kana kuti "akavakirwa zvikuru munhau yorudzi urwu negamuchidzanwa". Iyi nzira yakabvumira Dare kukudza dziviriro pashoma napashoma papo rinoremekedza chibvumirano chehurumende nehurumende.

Mutongi Benjamin Cardozo akarondedzera mupimo unokosha mu Palko v. Connecticut[[FL:1] (1937]), achitsanangura kuti dzimwe maruramiro anokosha kwazvo zvokuti kupunza kwavo kwaizova "chikamu chetsika huru yerusununguko rwakanga rwadzika mifungo yakarairwa. Iyi gadziriro yakatungamirirwa makumi amakore ezvisarudzo uye inoramba ine pesvedzero nhasi.

Basa Rechibvumirano Chegumi Negumi chaMagumo chaGadzirwo aClaus

Dare reGumi reProcess Claus reMitemo ye 14th Amendment rinobatira semotokari iyo Dare Rapamusoro rinoshandisa nayo Bill of Rights kuhurumende. Mutauro waClaus("" uyewo Hurumende ipi neipi ichanyima munhu upi noupi upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo"" yakadudzirwa kubatanidza kodzero idzodzo dzinokosha kurusununguko neruramisiro. Iyi rondedzero haina kubvisa dziviriro dzemitemo kumativi ose enyika; vashori vairamba kuti vagadziri vePrimende yeKinneth Reformation vakanga vasingadai kuti itore Bill of Rights. Zvisinei, zvisarudzo zveDare nguva dzose zvakasimbisa nheyo yemitemo inoiswa mumutemo, kuumba mutezotezo wakabatana wemitemo munyika yose.

Kutanga Kwenhau Kwekutsinhirana

Kwezana rokutanga ramakore pasi peBumbiro reMitemo, Bill of Rights yaishanda bedzi kuhurumende yehurumende yehurumende. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakasimbisa ikoku mu Barron v. Baltimore (1833), umo Mutongi Mukuru John Marshall akadavira kuti Gavhura reFth Amendment rakanga risingashandi. Uku kuganhurirwa kwakareva kuti mamiriro ezvinhu aigona, uye kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji kazhinji, kuputsa izvo zvino tinorangarira maruramiro makuru (akadai sematauriro akasununguka, rusununguko rworudzidziso, uye dziviriro pakunzvera kusina mufungo.)

Kushandiswa kweKiremment yechigumi namana muna 1868 kwakaparira mikana mitsva, asi Dare pakutanga rakanga richizengurira kuishandisa kumanikidza Bill of Rights kurwisana nenyika.

Kusarura Kwokutanga: Gitlow v. New York (1925)

Mhaka yakatanhamara yakazarura suo rokukudziridza yakanga iri Gitlow v. New York (1925). Benjamin Gitlow akanga ari mushingairi weparation akawanwa ane mhaka yeparation muNew York nokuda kwokubudisa chiziviso chapamberi chokukudzikwa kwehurumende. Gitrow akapikisa kuti kutenderwa kwake kwakaputsa rusununguko rwake chakarurama rwokutaura. Dare rakakwirira rakasimbisa kupwisa kwake, kuwana kuti kutaura kwechisocio kwaisadzivirira, asi muchirango chaparidzo chakaitwa chiziviso chinokosha: "Nokuti zvinangwa zvedu zvino tingafunga kuti rusununguko rwokutaura uye rwokudhinda runodzivirirwa paFirbrijini kupfurikidza neBrijimendiro yekodzero huru yeidzo inodzivirirwa nemitemo inotendwa kupfurikidza nokunyorwa kweChibvumirano chokutanga chenhau.

Kunyange zvazvo Gitlow akarasikirwa nemhosva yake, nheyo yemitemo yaakagadza yakagadzirira nzira kwamakumi amakore yorukundo rwerusununguko rwevagari vemo. Mhaka yacho yakaratidzira kuti dziviriro dzakasununguka dzeFirst Amendment, dzaichimbova bedzi nhoo yokudzivisa vanyengeri vehurumende, zvino dzaigona kushandiswa mukurwisana nehurumende nehurumende dzomunzvimbomo.

Kusarudza Takes Hock: 1930s-1960s

Pashure pa Gitlow[, Dare pashoma napashoma rakabatanidza Bill yedziviriro dzamaruramiro. Mu Near Neverson [1931], Dare rakabatanidza rusununguko rwechidhindo, kurova mutemo wehurumende wakabvumira kuganhurirwa kwezvinyorwa. [FLT:] [FLT]] [FOLT] DEVONGE v. Oregon[[FFLT:5] [37]] [197]) rakabatanidza rudyi kuungana kune rugare. .Connectic [F:]

Ma 1960, pasi poMutongi Mukuru Earl Warren, yakapupurira futunuko inoshamisa zvikurusa yokubatanidza. Dare reWarren rakanga richishingaira zvikuru mukushandisa dziviriro dzoutsotsi kunyika. Mapp v. Ohio [1961]) yakabatanidza mutemo weGaramende reSine, kuraira kuti matare ehurumende abvise ufakazi hwakawanwa mukunzvera kusina mufungo nehosha. Gedeon v. Wainright[ [1963]) akabatanidza pamutemo weSikisiti rekurura rudyi, achivimbisa kuti vakwikwidzi voga voga kunyange kana vasingagoni kukwanisa kubhadhara mumwe murwi. [FLD][FT]

Zvimwe zvinokosha zvaibatanidza Klopefer v. North Carolina (1967) nokuda kwekodzero kumuedzo wokukurumidza, DUN] v. Louisiana [1968]) nokuda kwekodzero yokutongwa nedare redare rakakomba mumhaka dzeutsotsi, uye Bhenton v. Maryland [69] [1] nokuda kwedziviriro panjodzi dzakapetwa kaviri. Pakasvika mugumo wenguva yeWarrenson, inodokudzivirira yose muMagariro apamutemo akanga abatanidzwa.

Nhau Huru Dzakaumba Dzidziso Yokusawirirana

Kunzwisisa nhau dzenhau dzakavanza dzidziso yokubatanidzwa kunokosha nokuda kwerusununguko rupi norupi rwevagari vemo.tafura inotevera inopeta zvisarudzo zvinokosha zvikurusa:

Kodzero Dzokutanga Dzokugadzirisa Zvinhu

  • Gitrow v. New York (1925) - Kutaura kwakasununguka kunoshandiswa kumatunhu
  • Nearb v. Minnesota (1931)[[FL:1] – Rusununguko rwezvisakiso zvenhau rwakashandiswa
  • De Jonge v. Oregon (1937)[[FL:1] – Kururama kwegungano kwakamanikidzirwa
  • Cantwell v. Connecticut (1940)[[FL:1] – kushandiswa kworudzidziso kwakasununguka kwakashandiswa
  • Everson v. Board of Education (1947) – Chivako cha Claus chinoshandiswa

Gadziriro Yechina Yekodzero

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961) – Kupclusionary gramage
  • Wolf v. Colorado (1949)[[FL:1] – kunzvera nokugwinha zvine mwero kwakashandisirwa kurudyi

Gadziriro Yechishanu Yekodzero

  • Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad v. Chicago (1897) – Kutora Claus
  • Malloy v. Hogan (1964)[[FL:1] – Ropafadzo mukurwisana nokuzviparadzanisa kwakashandiswa
  • Benton v. Maryland (1 969)[[FL:1] – dziviriro yengozi yakapetwa kaviri yakashandiswa

Kusunungurwa Kwekodzero Dzechitanhatu

  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) – Kururama kuzano rakashandiswa
  • Pointer v. Texas (1965) – Kodzero yokunangana nezvapupu zvakashanda
  • Klopefer v. North Carolina (1967)[[FL:1] – Kururamira kumuedzo wokukurumidza kunoshandiswa
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968) - Kururamisirwa kwemhaka yadare rinobetsera vatongi kwakashandiswa

Kodzero Dze Amendeko Yechisere

  • Robinson v. California (62)[[FL:1] – chirango choutsinye uye chechienzi chinoshandiswa

Kutapura Kwedzidziso Parusununguko Rwevagari Vomunyika Imwe Chete

Dzidziso yokubatanidza yave iri chishandiso chine simba nokuda kwavatsigiri verusununguko rwevagari vemo, ichigovera hwaro hwapamutemo hwokudenha mitemo yehurumende nezviito zvinoputsa maruramiro ebumbiro remitemo. Pamberi pokubatanidza, vatsigiri vaifanira kuvimba zvikurukuru namabumbiro emitemo nematare ehurumende, ayo aiwanzopa dziviriro dzisina kusimba. Kudzivirira kwakagadzira nzvimbo yehurumende yekodzero idzo hurumende dzose dzinofanira kuremekedza, kuvimbisa kuti mugari wemo muMissississippi anofarikanya dziviriro imwe cheteyo yeDwechina Sene semugari weMassachusetts.

Uku kubatana kwakabvumikisa kuva kunotsoropodza munharaunda dzinoverengeka. Munzvimbo yeruramisiro youtsotsi, kubatanidzwa kwakamanikidzira nyika kugovera magweta nokuda kwavakwirirwi, kubvisa ufakazi hunowanwa nenzira isiri yapamutemo, uye kupa nyevero dzakajeka pamusoro pekodzero yokuramba vakanyarara. Munharaunda yerusununguko rwokutaura kwakasununguka, kubatanidza kwakabvumira masangano erusununguko rwavagari vemo kudenha mitemo yehurumende yokunzvera uye kudzivirira manzwi anopesana. Murusununguko rworudzidziso, kubatanidza kwakagonesa denho dzemitemo inotendera rudzidziso kupfuura rumwe kana kuti kuremedza kushandisa kwakasununguka kwokutenda.

Nokuda kwamasangano akafanana neAmerican Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) neCenter for Constitution Rights, kubatanidza zvinogovera bhodhi rebumbiro remitemo kuti riunze nhau zvakananga mudare rehurumende mupasi ra 42 U.S.C., mutemo unobvumira vanhu kukwidza vakuru vakuru vehurumende nokuda kwokuputsa kwebumbiro remitemo. Uyu muitiro wave uchishandiswa muhondo dzinobviswa pahuvara, kodzero dzevasungwa, uye denho kumiitiro yokuongorora.

Kupa Simba Kurevererwa Kwehurumende

Kuzvidzora kwakapawo simba vatsigiri kuti vashande pamwero wehurumende. Nemhaka yokuti Bill of Rights yakanyoreswa inogadza mupimo muduku bedzi, hurumende dzingapfuurira mukudzivirira maruramiro mubumbiro remitemo radzo dzimene. matare makurusa enyika akadudzira mabumbiro ehurumende kugovera dziviriro dzakafara kupfuura Bill of Rights(a muitiro unozivikanwa se "sangano idzva redare redare remitemo rehurumende." Incorporation nokudaro inoumba gadziriro inoumbwa namativi maviri akaremara: uriri hwekodzero dzehurumende uye bviro yedziviriro dzapamutemo. Vatsigiriki vanogona kusarudza nenzira yapamutemo kuronda kana kuti varonde kutaura mubatanidzwa pasi pomubatanidzwa kana kuti mutemo, zvichitsamira pakugovera dziviriro kwakasimba zvikuru.

Kusimbisa Kutarisira Kwokutonga

Dzidziso yokubatanidza yakawedzerwa nenzira inoshamisa kutarisirwa kwedare rehurumende. Matare ehurumende zvino anohwirudzura nenzira yenguva dzose miitiro youtsotsi hwehurumende, mitemo yehurumende inodzora kutaura, uye zviito zvehurumende zvinotapura rusununguko rworudzidziso. Uku kutarisira kwakaita kuti hurumende dzive dzinozvidavirira zvikuru kuBumbiro remitemo uye kwakabetsera kubvisa miitiro inoputsa maruramiro makuru. Kukwanisa kuunza mhaka mudare rehurumende, nedziviriro dzadzo dzakazvimirira uye dzakasimba zvikuru, dzave dziri betsero huru nokuda kwevatsigiri verusununguko rwevagari vemo.

Zvisinei, uku kutarisira kwakakura kwakaparirawo kudzokera shure. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti kubatanidza kuparadzwa kwehurumende uye kubvumira vatongi vehurumende kusarudzwa kwechipiri kwemiitiro yehurumende. Vamwe vatongi, zvikurukuru Clarence Thomas, vakapanikira dzidziso inosarudzwa pachayo, vachiitirana nharo nokuda kwekudzokera kunzwisiso yapakuvamba iyo Bill of Rights isingashandi kuzvinhu. Pasinei zvapo neizvi zvikamu zvehurumende, kubatanidza zvinoramba zvagara zvagara zvarongwa uye zvinogamuchirwa zvikuru nenzanga yepamutemo.

Kodzero Dzisina Kubatanidzwa Nenguva Yemberi Yokusarurana

Kunyange zvazvo ruzhinji rweBill of Rights yakapinzwa mudare, homwe shomanene dzinoramba dzisina kushandiswa. Third Amendment inotonga varwi vana haina kushandiswa kunyika idzi, kunyange zvazvo ikoku kuri zvikurukuru nemhaka yokuti kodzero yacho haiwanzomuka. Kodzero yeshanu yedare reFindrence inopa mhosva huru haina kumbobatanidzwa, uye hurumende dzinoramba dzakasununguka kushandisa zvimwe zvinhu zvinoshandiswa semashandiro okutanga kana kuti mashoko. Kurambidza kweSexh Amendment kwave kupfurikidza nemutemo pabhegi rakanyanyisa hakunawo kubatanidzwa nenzira yepamutemo, kunyange zvazvo Dare rakabatanidza dziviriro dzinowirirana kupfurikidza neSangano redare reSangano reSangano reSangano reClabel.

Second Amendment yakapa mubvunzo wakapokanidzwa zvikuru. Kwamakumi amakore, Dare Rapamusoro-soro rakanga risina kusarudza kana maruramiro okuchengeta nokutakura zvombo achishandiswa kunyika. Ikoko kwakachinja mu McDonald v. Chicago[ (2010), apo Dare raibatanidza Second Amendment, rairova chibharo chepfumu cheChicago. Chisarudzo chakanga chiri 5-4, naMutongi Samuel Alito kunyora ruzhinji kuti maruramiro okuzvimirira amene ndi "chirevo kurangano yorudzi rwerusununguko rwakarairwa."

Nguva yemberi yokubatanidza ingabatanidza maruramiro asina kurongwa zvakajeka muBill of Rights. Somuenzaniso, maruramiro ekuva woga, anozivikanwa mu .Connecticut[65] uye akatambanudzwa [[FLT:] Roe v. Wade[[FLD][[FL:3] [773]) na[FLT] [[FLT]] Obergesfell v. Hodgev v. [2020], anotorwa kubva ku "Numbra" yekodzero dzekodzero nedzero dzePremeticmergement's. Iyi miitiro inodzo isingatengwi neyati yemarusarusaro yeChitejinga. Iyi [FLT]

Mabhuku Anoshanda Kuvatsigiri Nhasi

Nokuda kwavatsigiri verusununguko rwavagari vemo vazvino uno, dzidziso yokubatanidza inoramba iri chishandiso chinokosha. Apo inodenha mutemo wehurumende unoremedza kutaura pasina mvumo kana kuti kuisa zvirango zvoutsotsi zvoutsinye, mubvunzo wokutanga ndouyu: Mutemo uyu unoputsa maruramiro akanyoreswa here? Kana zvakadaro, mutsigiri anogona kuunza kutaura pasi pomutemo wehurumende, achitsvaka rusununguko rwapakarepo mudare rehurumende. Iyi nzira inobvumira vatsigiri kufuratira matare ehurumende ane utsinye uye kutsamira pamiganhuro yehurumende yakasanosimudzirwa.

Kuvhota kunopfavisawo nhimbe dzorudzi rwose. Masangano anogona kuronga kukwirirana kwematare munyika dzakawanda, achitsamira panheyo imwe cheteyo dzebumbiro remitemo, kudenha miitiro yakapararira semitemo yakapararira yedzinza, mitemo yemaodha, kana kuti ganhuriro pamubato wokuramba. Kubatana kwekodzero dzakabatanidzwa kunobvumira vatsigiri kuvamba mipfupikiso yemienzanisiro nezvibvumikiso zvinoshanda nguva dzose mumativi ose emitemo.

Uyezve, kubatanidzwa kunopfuurira kumutsa mibvunzo mitsva yepamutemo. Nharo dzemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi pamusoro pekurambidzwa kwehurumende pakurapa kwokutendeuka, ganhuriro pazvikamu zvemanyuko enhau, uye kukura kwokusapinda kwemitemo yorudzidziso yekurwisana netsvina kunobatanidza kodzero dzeFirst Amendment. Mhindumupindu yezvoruzivo rwokugadzirwa kwezvinhu inomutsawo nhau dzakadai seganhuriro dzeGazedhi reChina pakunzvera dzinoshanda kuunganidzwa kwemashoko ezvemakombiyuta kana kukushandiswa kwemadhipatimende ehurumende nemapurisa ehurumende.

Kushanda Mukati Memakakatanwa Enzanga

Nepo kubatanidzwa kuchivimbisa uriri hwehurumende, vatsigiri vanofanira kupfuurira kudzora zvinhu zvakaoma zvehurumende. Dzimwe kodzero dzinobatanidzwa murutivi bedzi. Somuenzaniso, Summerce yechitanhatu maruramiro edare redare redare mumhaka dzoutsotsi yakabatanidzwa mu Duncan v. Louisiana (1968), asi Dare rakarangarira kuti maruramiro haashandi kumhosva duku dzinorangwa nemwedzi mitanhatu kana kuti shomanene mutorongo. Nenzira yakafanana, Pendement Refectionment inotonga mhaka dzevagari vemo havasati vambobatanidzwa, kureva kuti angashandisa miitiro isiri yehurumende muzvinhu zvevagari vemo.

Mukuwedzera, kubatanidzwa kwamaruramiro hakungoerekani kwasarudza ukodzero yekodzero idzodzo. Dare rapamusoro kazhinji kazhinji rinodudzira mwero wekodzero yakasiana mumashoko akapoteredza ehurumende kupfuura mumashoko akapoteredza ehurumende. Somuenzaniso, dziviriro dzeFirst Amendment nokuda kwekurukurirano yezvokutengeserana uye nokuda kwokutaura kwavose kwavose kungava nemhesano dzakajeka apo kunoshandiswa kuhurumende dzomunzvimbomo. Vatsigiri vanofanira kuramba varipo padudziro dzinochinja Dare.

Mugumisiro: Nhaka Isingaperi Yokusarura

Dzidziso yokubatanidza yakachinja zvikurukuru rusununguko rwavagari vemo rweAmerica, ichitambanudzira Bill of Rights kubva kudziviriro yehurumende bedzi kusvikira kuvimbiso yenyika yose yerusununguko rukuru. Muzana ramakore rezvisarudzo zveDare Gurusa, inodokuva maruramiro ose akadzorwa muzvinogadziriswa gumi zvokutanga akaita kuti itsigirwe mukurwisana nehurumende. Iyi mhindumupindu yapamutemo yakapa simba tsigiro dzekodzero dzavagari vemo dzokudenha udzvinyiriri hwehurumende, dziviriro dzamayunifomu, uye inoita kuti hurumende dzizvidavirire pamwero iri yose.

Nepo kurukurirano pamusoro pomupimo wakafanira wokubatanidza dzichipfuurira, nheyo yadzo huru (8) yokuti maruramiro akati anokosha kwazvo zvokuti hakuna hurumende ingaaputsa. Nemhaka yokuti munhu upi noupi anobatanidzwa mukurwira rusununguko rwavagari vemo, kunzwisisa hakusati kuri bedzi muitiro wedzidzo yedzidzo; idikanwo inoshanda nokuda kwokubudirira. Dzidziso inogovera mashoko apamutemo uye maturusi ebumbiro remitemo kudzivirira rusununguko rwokutaura, rusununguko rworudzidziso, muitiro wakafanira, uye ruramisiro yakaenzana mumativi ose orudzi.

Sezvo denho itsva dzinomuka, kubva pamichina yokunzvera kusvikira kumirangariro yokubatanidza kuvandika, gadziriro yokubatanidza ichaedzwa nokunatswa pasina panikiro. Asi basa rayo rehwaro mukuwana rusununguko rwomunhu oga mukurwisana nehurumende risingabviri kuderera. Dzidziso yokubatanidza inomira setestamende yesimba rinogara reBumbiro remitemo rokuchinjira nokudzivirira maruramiro evagari vose veAmerica, pasinei zvapo nekwavanogara.

nokuda kwokuravazve pamusoro pekukura kwenhau yokubatanidza, ona Bhishopu yekodzero panzvimbo inochengeterwa Matura eNyika. . Nokuda kwokunyudza kukuru muIndaneti neshandiso yayo, bvunza [FLT][FLT:] . Dare roKutonga rakabva kuRaibhurari yeMasangano [[FLT:].[FLT:][FLT][FFLT:][FFULT]][FFF:]