Bhuku Rekodzero Dzevanhu: Mavambo Okuenzana

Kugadziridza kugumi kwokutanga kuBumbiro reMitemo, rinozivikanwa seBill of Rights, kwakabvumikiswa muna 1791. idzi gadziridzo dzakarongedzerwa kudzivirira rusununguko rwomunhu oga uye kuganhurira simba rehurumende. Dzakaisa hwaro hwenzwisiso yedu yokuenzana neruramisiro munzira dzinoverengeka.

First Amendment inodzivirira rusununguko rwokutaura, rwechitendero, rwokubudisa, rwegungano, uye rwokukumbira. Iri boka rekodzero rinosimbisa kuti manzwi ose, kusanganisira maonero mashoma, anganzwiwa munzvimbo dzavose. Pasina kudzivirira uku, kukwidziridzwa kwokuenzana kungadai kusina nzvimbo yakakodzera kuti pave nokusasarura. Gadziriro yeChikamu cheChina inodzivirira pakutsvaka nokubatwa zvisina musoro, kuvamba kuva nenzvimbo yakavanzika yakaenzana kumunhu wose, pasinei zvapo nemamiriro ezvinhu akashata. Hurumende yeshanu inovimbisa kodzero yemuitiro wokuzvitonga uye kudzivirira pamunhu oga, inosimbisa pfungwa yokuti miitiro yepamutemo inofanira kuva inoruramisira uye isingachinji. Kudzikamiswa kwemitemo yechisere inorambidza kubatwa kwoutsinye uye chirango, inogadza mupimo wekubatwa kwavanhu kudzivirira mugariro wokuzvirangozvirango.

Iyi gadziridzo yakanga isiriwo zvayo mirangarirowo zvayo; yakanga iri mhinduro dzakananga kuzvichemo zvehurumende mukutonga kweBritain. Varairi vakanzwisisa kuti pasina dziviriro dzakajeka, hurumende yaigona kutsika nyore nyore kodzero dzekodzero dzekodzero. Nokufamba kwenguva, Bill of Rights yatambanudzirwa kunyika dzacho kupfurikidza neScreate Process Claus, muitiro unozivikanwa sechikamu chehurumende iyoyo nehurumende dzomunzvimbomo zvinofanira kuremekedzawo rusununguko urwu rukuru, kuumba nzvimbo inowirirana yekodzero munyika yose.

Somuenzaniso, chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa Mapp v. Ohio (1961) yakashandisa mutemo wokuparadzanisa kumatare ehurumende, ichirangarira kuti ufakazi hunowanwa kupfurikidza nokunzvera kusina mufungo hahugoni kushandiswa mukutonga. ichi chisarudzo chakasimbisa chipikirwa cheTne Amendment chedziviriro yakaenzana pakanga pane kuvhozhokerwa nehurumende. Nenzira yakafanana, Gideon v. Wantright[ [1963])) chinovimbisa maruramiro ezano nokuda kwavanopomerwa mhaka dzoutsotsi, kuvimbisa kuti pfuma haigoni kuwana ruramisiro. Izvi zvinoratidza kuti Bill wekodzero dzinoramba sei dzichiri chishandiso chipenyu nokuda kwokuenzana.

Kuenzana Mumutemo

Kuenzana iko kunokosha muhurumende yeAmerica. Chikamu chemitemo yokudzivirira chakaenzana, chinowanwa muKirestigamende yechigumi namana, chinoita basa rinokosha mukuva nechokwadi chokuti vanhu vose vanobatwa zvakanaka pasi pomutemo. Iyi mhedziso inorambidza kuramba munhu upi noupi dziviriro yakaenzana yemitemo.

Yakasimbiswa muna 1868 pashure peHondo yevagari vemo, Iwenath Amendment yakagadzirirwa kuvimbisa kodzero dzevatema vachangobva kusunungurwa. Kudzivirira kwainoita Claus kwazova chinhu chikuru nokuda kwemitemo inodenha kusarura uye miitiro. Chitsama hachidi kubatwa zvakafanana nomunhu wose, asi chinorambidza chiito chehurumende chinorwisa boka nokuda kwezvikonzero zvoushingi kana kuti zvenhema. Matare akagadzira mitsetse yokuongorora /fitifece, pakati, uye hwaro hunoyera kana mutemo uchiputsa dziviriro yakaenzana.

Mhaka Hurusa dzeDare

Nhau dzinoverengeka dzinooneka dzeDare Rapamusorosoro dzakadudzira chitsama chamashoko chedziviriro chakaenzana, kuchiumba nzwisiso yedu yeruramisiro nokuenzana:

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): [[FLT]] Yaizivisa dzinza muzvikoro zvavose zvisina kurongwa. Dare rakabvumirana raidavira kuti “kuparadzana asi zvakaenzana” zvinhu hazvina kuenzana, zvinoputsa [ Presev. Ferguson [1896]). Chisarudzo ichi chakaputsa chirongwa chapamutemo chaJim Crow ndokuva chiva chitsikiso chekodzero dzavagari vemo.
  • Roe v. Wade (1973): Yakasimbisa maruramiro omukadzi okusarudza pamusoro poutano hwake hwokubereka, achiisa maruramiro muChiitiko chaClause yeKinneth Amendment. Nepo mhaka yacho yaitongwa mu Dobs v. Jackson’s Health Organization [[FLT] [2022], nhaka yayo inoramba iri pakati penharo pamusoro pekuenzana kwechirume nechimiro chomuviri.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): roorano yapamutemo yevatano yokwate munyika yose, ichisimbisa nheyo yokuenzana. Dare rakaramba kuti kodzero yokuroora ikodzero inokosha inovimbiswa kuvaroorani vane mitezo mimwe cheteyo yevatano pasi pezvose zviri zviviri Century neMate Exter Externet Clauses.

Zviitiko izvi zvinoenzanisira kuti Kudzivirira Claus kwakaenzana kunochinja sei kukurukura zvimiro zvitsva zverusaruro. Somuenzaniso, Lovang v. Virginia (1967) yakabvisa zvirambidzo paroorano yemadzinza, uye Shelby County v. Raker [202013]) yakaganhurira Voting Rights Act, kumutsa nharo dzinopfuurira pamusoro peruramisiro yedzinza. Kududzira kweDare chinzwanoumenzana hakurevi kwakabatana; kunoratidzira kuchinja mipimo yezvinokosha nenzwisiso.

Kuedza Kwepembedzo uye Kupfuura

Nemhaka yehwirudzuro ine mufungo, mutemo unorangarirwa kuva une revo kana une chokuita nefariro yehurumende yapamutemo. Iyi mirau yakaderera inoshanda kumirau mizhinjisa yezvemari nenzanga. Zvisinei, nokuda kwokurongwa kwakavakirwa padzinza, mavambo, kana kuti maruramiro makuru, matare anoshandisa nzvero yakakomba zvikurusa. Muiyi muedzo, mutemo unofanira kusanogadzirirwa kuwana fariro inogombedzerwa yehurumende. Maruraniso anowana nzvero yapakati, anoda kuti mutemo ubatire fariro inokosha yehurumende uye uwirirane zvikuru nefariro iyoyo.

Uyu mutoo wakatevedzana unovimbisa kuti mapoka asina dziviriro zvikurusa anogamuchira dziviriro hurusa. Somuenzaniso, miitiro yokubvuma mudzidzo yakakwirira yakaedzwa nokunzvera kwakakomba. Mu Graiter v. Bollinger [[2003]], Dare rakatsigira Yunivhesiti yeMichigan Law School inobvuma muitiro wenhangemutange yenhangemutange, inowanwa kuti mhatsa yakaumba fariro inomanikidzira. Zvisinei, mu mifungo yeFair Adgictsssss. v.[FLD] [2003] [20]), Dare rakarova zviito zvinogamuchirwa nohungwe zvedzinza paHarvard neYunivhesitichaMwerwe, rikaputsa chisarudzo chinodzivirira Chino.

Ruramisiro Negadziriro Yeruramisiro Yeutsotsi

Mitemo yeSatanhatu ne8 inobatsira vanhu vanenge vachipomerwa mhosva, ichivimbisa kuti vanhu vachabatwa zvakanaka uye kuti vachaitwa zvakakodzera.

Iyi dziviriro haisati ichingova zvayo yezvokuzvizivisa; iyo inobatanidza nheyo yokuti hurumende inofanira kubata munhu ari wose noruremekedzo neruramisiro. Sixth Amendment inovimbisa maruramiro kukutonga kwokukurumidza uye kwokusarura, vatongi vasina rusaruro, maruramiro okuziviswa nezvepomero, kodzero yokutarisana nezvapupu, uye maruramiro okupa zano. Kudzivirirwa kweGavhura vhudzi reFindmail kunofanira kudzivisa hurumende kuramba ichipomera munhu mhaka imwe cheteyo, nepo ropafadzo mukurwisana nechakaipa chokuzvitonga kuchizvimiririra inodzivirira.

Kodzero Dzevaipomerwa

Kodzero dzomupomerwi dzinotsoropodza kuchengeta ruramisiro. Zvikamu zvikuru zvinosanganisira:

  • Kurudyi kukutonga kwokukurumidza: inosimbisa kuti vanhu havaitwi nokusingaperi pasina muedzo. Barker v. Wingo [77]] inoedza zvinhu zvina: urefu hwokunonoka, chikonzero chokunonozeka, kutaura kwemukwirirwi kworudyi, uye fungira mano yakaipa kumukwirwi.
  • Kurudyi Kuzano: kunovimbisa kuti vakwirirwi vane kusvika kumimiririri yapamutemo. Gideon v. Wainwr [1963] [63]) inotambanudzira iyi kodzero kuhurumende nhau dzefeloni, uye [[FLT]] Argerserser v. Hamlin [0] [10] [7]] yakarevererwa kunhau ipi neipi apo kuiswa mutorongo kungava chirango. Rubayiro runoshanda rwamazano runodikanwawo pasi pe .[56]
  • Kudzivirirwa pazvirango zvine utsinye: Hurumende yeMitemo yeSayere inodzivisa kubatwa kwouhunhu. Dare rapamusorosa rakataura kuti chirango chorufu hachisi chigaro nokuda kwavana (] r. Simmons, 2005]) uye nokuda kwavanhu vane urema hwoungwaru ([[FLT:]]] Atkins v. Virginia, 2002]). Kunyanyisa mari inorambidzwawo.

Uyezve, mutemo weChina wokubvisa muganhu weGavhura, wakanatswa mu Mapp v. Ohio, inodzivisa kusazvibata kwamapurisa kupfurikidza nokuwana ufakazi nenzira isiri yapamutemo. Dare raiti Vachurisi vanofanira kuzivisa ufakazi hwokudzivirira hwe144th Amendment. Idzi dziviriro dzinovimbisa kuti gadziriro yematsotsi ive inova yakarurama zvikuru. Somuenzaniso, mu Brady v. Maryland[ [1963], Dare racho raizivisa kuti vachuchidziridziridziri vanofanira kuzivisa ufakazi hwokudzivirira.

Kutama - tama uye Kuchinja Zvinhu

Pasinei zvapo neiyi dziviriro yebumbiro remitemo, United States ine mwero wakakwirira wokusungwa pakati penyika dzakabudirira. Vanhu vanopfuura 1,9 miriyoni vanoiswa mutorongo, nemiuyo isingaenzaniswi panzanga dzavatema neveHispanic. Hondo paMirimo, mitsetse miduku yapamutemo, uye mitemo mitatu yakaparira kusungwa kwavazhinji. Kurambidza kweSereng Amendment pamusoro poutsinye nechirango chechienzi kwakakumbirwa kudenha mitongo mirefu, zvikurukuru nokuda kwemhosva dzisina masimba masimba.

Mu Miller v. Alabama (2012), Dare rakatonga kuti mitongo youpenyu yapamutemo pasina kubviswa nokuda kwepwere inoputsa Eighth Amendment. Mu United States v. Bhuku (2005], Dare rakaita nhungamiro dzemitemo dzokutonga panzvimbo pechikwaniriso, asi dzinoramba. Vatsigiriri vanoda kuti kugadziriswa, kubatanidza kubviswa kwemabhegi, uko kunoranga urombo, uye kupfuudzira gadziriro dzokugadziridza. Bumbiro reMitemo rinogovera chirongwa, asi chinodikanwa kuziva ruramisiro nokuda kwavose.

Chiito Chinosimbisa Nokuenzana

Mitemo yokusimbisa chiito yakabuda senzira yokupedza nayo kusaruramisira kwenhau ndokusimudzira kuenzana. iyi mitemo inovavarira kusimbisa basa rokutamba mudzidzo nebasa kupfurikidza nokurangarira rudzi, kuva murume kana mukadzi, uye zvimwe zvinhu mumiitiro yokuita zvisarudzo.

Murangariro wokubvuma chiito wakawana mukurumbira muPurezidhendi John F. Kennedy ya1995, iyo yaida kuti vagadziri vehurumende va “tende. ” Vavariro yokusasarura. Gare gare, Purezidhendi Lyndon B. Johnson’s Guevice Order 11246 yakatambanudza izvi zvinodikanwa ndokuita kuti hofisi yeFederal Contracct Compliance. Programmes yezviito zvedzidzo yakakwirira ive nzvimbo inocherekedzerwa nokuda kwekurukurirano pamusoro perevo youenzani.

Nharo Dzakapoteredza Chiito Chinosimbisa

Kunyange zvazvo kubvumirana kuchitsigira kuenzana, kwakamutsawo nharo pamusoro pokururamisira uye kururamisira.

  • Chitendero: Vamwe vanotaura kuti chiito chinogona kutungamirira kushandura rusaruro, kubvisa vakwidzi vasiri vakaderera avo vangakwaniriswa zvikuru pamaminu egamuchidzanwa. Vatsoropodzi vanotaura kuti kubvuma kwapamhene neshoko rinoziva dzinza kunoputsa Kudzivirira kwaClaus uye kunofanira kutsiviwa nezvisarudzo zveboka kana kuti zvemagariro ezvemari. Mu Regets of University of California v. Bakke[FLT][12]] [1288]), Dare rakarova chisakiso chegadziriro inoyera asi rinofanira kubvumirwa kuva chinhu chimwe pakati pavazhinji.
  • vatsigiri vanodavira kuti kuri madikanwa kurwisa kusaenzana kwegadziriro. Vanonongedzera kunhaka yokutsaurana nokusawirirana kunopfuurira mukuwana dzidzo nepfuma. Nzvero inoratidza kuti mhoteredzo dzokudzidza dzakasiana-- siyana dzinobetsera vadzidzi vose. mhedziso yakatsigira mhatsa sefariro inomanikidzira, kunyange zvazvo yakacherekedza kuti gadziriro dzedzinza dzinoziva zvinhu zvinofanira kuva dzechinguvana uye dzinodzokororwa panguva nenguva.

Sarudzo nokuda kwaFair Adgings v. Harvard (2023) chisarudzo chakagumisa nenzira inobudirira kugamuchirwa kwenhangemutange pa makoreji mazhinjisa namayunivhesiti. Dare rakaramba kuti Harvard neUNC yakanga isina zvinangwa zvinodavirika uye yakashandisa dzinza nomutoo wakaipa. Iyi mhedziso yakagombedzera masangano kunzverazve zvirongwa zvawo zvemhatsa, nokuchinja kumugariro wetsika yenzanga, nzvimbo yokutanga yezera rekoreji, uye mhatsa yenzvimbo yenzvimbo yenzvimbo yapasi sezvimwe. Nguva yemberi yokubvuma ingava muhwirudzuro yenhau idzo dzinoparira vaparidzi vose, asi pasina zvisarudzo zvamarudzi.

Chiito Chinopa simba

Chiito chokubvuma chinotsigirwawo chinoita basa mukusimudzira kuenzana. Umutwe IX weDzidzo Remessagements ye1972 unorambidza rusaruro rwevatano mupurogiramu dzedzidzo dzinotsigirwa nehurumende. Uyu mutemo wave uchibatsira mukuwedzera mikana yavakadzi mumitambo, STEM minda, uye utungamiriri hwedzidzo. Nenzira yakafanana, Act Pace naTitle VII of the Civil Rights Act inovavarira kuvhara musiyano wemijaho yevarume ne kudzivisa rusaruro rwebasa. Zvisinei, zvinetso zvazvinongosara, sezvo vakadzi vachiri kuwana madhora anenge 82 padhora rimwe nerimwe rinowanwa navarume, uye kusarura kunoenderera mberi mukubhadharwa nokusimudzirwa.

Basa Reimba Yokuteerera Mukushayisa Mutemo Mufungo

Kududzira kwekodzero dzebumbiro remitemo kunokosha kumhindumupindu yokuenzana neruramisiro. Kupfurikidza nenzvero yedare, Dare rine chibvumikiso chokupedzisira pamusoro pokuti mutemo kana kuti chiito choukuru neBumbiro remitemo. Iri simba rakatangwa mu Marbury v. Madison[FL:1] [1803] uye rakashandiswa kuputsa mitemo yetsika dzorusaruraganda munhau yose.

Dare harina kudzivirirwa kudzvinyiriro yezvamatongerwe enyika neyenzanga. Zvisarudzo zvewalmark kazhinji kazhinji zvinoratidzira mipimo yakapararira yenhambo yavo, asi zvinogadzawo tsika itsva. Somuenzaniso, Brown v. Board yakaramba dzidziso ye “inopesana" iyo yakanga yapfuurira kwamakore anopfuura 50. Obergefell[[ yakaziva maruramiro makuru ayo akanga asina kuvapo murugwaro rwapakuvamba rwebumbiro remitemo. Vatsoropo vanoramba kuti zvisarudzo zvakadaro zvinomirira chiito chedare, nepo vanotsigira zvichizviona sezvinokosha kutedzerwa kwemitemo mipenyu iyo inochinjika kumigariro inochinja.

Kutonga kwazova kwakakurumbira, namapurezidhendi anotsvaka kugadza vatongi vanowirirana nemirangariro yavo yepfungwa. Muitiro wokusimbisa kazhinji kazhinji unobatanidza kunzvera kwakakomba kwemirangariro yemuminee pakuenzana neruramisiro. Somuenzaniso, Mutongi Thur Good Marshall, gweta rekodzero dzavagari vemo raipopopotera Brown, akaunza ruzivo rwokuzviwanira rwakananga nekusaruramisira kwedzinza kubhenji. misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi zvikuru, kugadzwa kweMutongi Ketanji Brown, mukadzi Mutema paDare, anoratidzira fambiro mberi.

Zvinetso Zvenguva Ino uye Nzira Iri Mberi

Kunyange zvazvo Bumbiro Remitemo richipa gadziriro yakasimba yokuenzana neruramisiro, zvinetso zvepanguva ino zvinopfuurira.

Voting Rights Act ya1965, yakamiswa pasi peFinute Amendment, yakaneteswa ne Shelby County chisarudzo, icho chakakunda gadziriro yevhuna revhu. Mumhinduro, hurumende dzinoverengeka dzakapa mitemo inoda madrugazhowa, kuganhurira kuvhota kwokukurumidza, uye kubvisa muvhoti. Kuramba pasi pePureshivisvier Claus neVoting Rights Act. Chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa rePropati reBrnoch ne. Democratic National Comment [[FLT:][3] (201]) kwakaita zvakaoma kudenha ganhuriro pasi pechikamu 2 cheChibvumirano, kudivigiramu chinodikanwa chitsva chemitemo chehurumende. Chibvumirano chaMaganhuro aDamo aD aD. Chibvumirano chishamisiro chaJohn Chire. Chibvumirano chitsva chinotiko cheSaka

Kudzorwa kwemitemo neruramiso yetsotsi zvichiri nhau dzekurumidziro. Nhau dzakakwirira dzechisimba chamapurisa, dzakadai sokupondwa kwaGeorge Floyd, dzakamutsa kunyunyuta kwamarudzi uye kuzvidavirira. Kudzivirira kweFreadmerment pakunzvera kusina mufungo nepfari, pamwe chete negadziriro yeKinneth Amendment yeIneth Amendment inovimbisa, ndezvechokwadi. Kudzivirira kunobvumidzwa, kunodzivirira vakuru vakuru pamhosva dzehurumende, kwakashorwa nokuda kwokuva nemhaka yokuzvidzwa. Dzimwe nyika dzakaita chinjo, uye Congressress dzakarangarira George Floyd Justicement in Policicial Act, asi zvinetso zvebumbiro remitemo zvinopfuurira.

Ukuru hwakaenzana kunotarisanawo nemiganhu mitsva. Aumetic Rights Amenuty Amendment (ERA), iyo ingavimbisa zvakajeka kuenzana kwamaruramiro pasi pomutemo pasinei zvapo nevatano, yakapfuudzwa neCongress muna 1972 asi yakakundikana kukwaniswa. Muna 2020, Virginia akava hurumende yechi 38 kuraving, asi kupesana kwapamutemo kunopfuurira pamusoro penguva nekuva nechero kwapashure. Dare Rapamusoro harina kutauri zvakananga kana ERA richigona kuwedzerwa kuBumbiro remitemo. Panguva ino, nhau dzinobatanidza kodzero dzekodzero dzechinyakare, dzakadai se brostockk. County[FFLF: 1] [FLD] [FLD] 2020] (20) iyo inotambanurirwa nechiratidzo chemitemo yevatano nevatano) uye [FTrectrime] Coout Coout Councentive [3] County County][3] Counst County [3]

Kupedzisa: Rwendo Rwuri Kupfuurira Rwokuenzana uye Rwokururamisira

Kunzwisisa kwedu kuenzana neruramisiro kunoumbwa nedudziro dzinopfuurira dzekodzero dzebumbiro remitemo.Vadzidzisi nevadzidzi zvavanobatanidzwa nepfungwa idzi, vanobatsira kukurukurirana kunoramba kuchiitwa pakodzero dzevanhu uye rusununguko muAmerica.

Bill of Rights, American Confection, uye kugadziridzwa kweMitemo ye 144 kunogovera hwaro hwapamutemo, asi kurondwa kwouenzani kunoda kungwarira kwenguva dzose. zvisarudzo zveDare Gurusa, chiito chomutemo, uye midzi youswa zvose zvinoita basa mukuumba revo yeruramisiro. Kuedza kweAmerica ibasa risina kupedzwa, uye chizvarwa chimwe nechimwe chinofanira kurwisana nokusawirirana pakati porusununguko nokuenzana, pakati pegamuchidzanwa nefambiro mberi.

Nokuda kwaavo vanoda kukudza nzwisiso yavo, manyuko makuru akadai se Cunstitution Anchoged[ inogovera kunzvera kwakakwana kwechikamu chimwe nechimwe. Nyaya dzinobva Oyez[ na[FLT] [[FLT]] [FLT]] .[FLT] DAP] REMAM [[FLT] MB] REF [FLT]] REACTY] inogovera mashoko anowanika pamiteko yemitemo. Masangano akafanana ACU]] uye [FLT]

Pakupedzisira, Bumbiro reMitemo harisi vimbiso yokuzviparadza. Igadziriro inotsamira pakuzvipira kwevagari vemo, vagadziri vemitemo, uye vatongi kuti vatsigire nheyo dzaro. Kuenzana neruramisiro hazvisi mativi emhedziso azvo asi zvinangwa zvinoshanda zvinoda chiito. Kupfurikidza nokufunda kuti kodzero dzebumbiro remitemo dzinoumba sei kunzwisisa kwedu, tinozvishongedzera timene kutora rutivi mumuitiro uyu unokosha wedemocracy.