Ircorporation Doctrine inomira seimwe yezvinoitika zvikurusa mumutemo wemitemo weAmerica. Kupfurikidza nokushanda kwayo, rusununguko rukuru rwakasimbiswa muBill of Rights (* pakutanga runobatanidza bedzi hurumende yehurumende(*) yakatambanudzwa kudzivisa hurumende nehurumende dzomunzvimbomo pamwe chete. Iyi chinjo haina kuitika munhambo yehondo dzapamutemo dzinotyisa dzinobatanidza zana ramakore ramakumi maviri kusvikira zvino. Chinetso chimwe nechimwe chakaedza kusvika kweKinneth Amendment’s Claus, chakaumba ukama hwazvino uno pakati pesimba renyika nehurumende, uye kodzero dzakatsunga idzo dzingadzivirirwa zvakafanana kurudzi. Kunzwisisa denho dzenhau dzehondo dzinobatanidza zvose zviri zviviri ukurunako kwekusvika kwazvino uno kwekodzero yapamhindeidzwa uye pamutemo pamusoro pesimba rehurumende.

Mavambo Edzidziso Yokusawirirana

Chizvarwa chakatanga hachina kukarira kuti Bill of Rights yaizoshanda kunyika. Congress yeFirst yakakarakadza kugadziridzwa kwegumi kwokutanga seganhuriro pahurumende yehurumende ichangobva kusikwa, gadziriro yakasimbiswa zvakajeka neDare Gurusa mu Barron v. Baltimore (1833). Mumurangariro iwoyo unobvumiranwa, Chiratidzo chaMapuresi John Marshall chaMaput Complete’s Claus haana kusunga guta reBaltimore nemhaka yokuti Bill of Rights yaishanda mukurwisana nehurumende yenyika bedzi. Kwamakumi manomwe anotevera, mapepanhau akanga akasununguka kugamuchira dziviriro yavo vamene.

Nyika yakachinjwa pashure peHondo yevagari vemo. Reconstructon Amendments, zvikurukuru Ivhu reMitemo rechigumi namana rakatenderwa muna 1868, rakagadza ganhuriro itsva pasimba rehurumende. Chikamu Chokutanga cheRemendi yacho chinozivisa, kuti: “Hapana Hurumende ichaita kana kuti kumanikidza mutemo upi noupi uchavhara maropafadzo kana kuti kudzivirira vagari vemo veUnited States; uyewo Hurumende ipi neipi haisati ichizonyima munhu upi noupi upenyu, rusununguko, kana kuti zvinhu, pasina muitiro wakafanira womutemo; kana kuramba munhu upi noupi mukati moudzoro hwakaenzana nemitemo." Mashoko aya aizova nheyo yemitengo yemitengo yeIncoration Relition Dolition Dologies, asi revo rawo yakaitwa zvinotyisa kubva pakutanga.

Mu Cases-Imba yeSango (1873), Dare Rapamusorosoro rakaganhurira zvakakomba kusvika kwemaropafadzo kana kuti maImmunion Claus, richifunga kuti rakadzivirira bedzi chitsama chiduku chekodzero dzemo yehuware uye kwete zvibvumikiso zvakakura zvakawanikwa muBill of Rights. Iyi chisarudzo chakavhara nenzira inobudirira nzira imwe inobvira kudziviriro yamarudzi ose. Panzvimbo pezvo Dare rakatendeukira kuChiteshi chaMasangano eClause, kuchitsanangura kubatanidza mabumbiro e “makurunhuro ayo mashoma ayo mare asingagoni kudzivirira. Ikoku kusarura, kupfurikidza nokusvika kwapapo padaro kwaidzo kwaidzo kuidzoro yezana ramakore rakatevera.

Zana ramakore ramakumi maviri rakaona kukumbira kwokutanga kubudirira kweiyi rondedzero. Mu kuwirirana ne. New Jersey (08), Dare rakabvuma kuti zvimwe zvinodzivirira maruramiro zvingava “mararamiro avanhu” uye nokudaro zvabatanidzwa mumuitiro wakafanira, kunyange zvazvo zvakaramba kushandisa ropafadzo mukurwisana nokuzviparadzanisa kuzvinhu mumhaka iyoyo. Mbeu yacho yakanga yadyarwa, asi kubatanidzwa kwakazara kwaizoda nhevedzano yedenho dzechiratidzo chenyika.

Zvinetso Zvapakuvamba Nokuvamba Kwokusarudza

Gitlow v. New York (1925): Cracking of the Federal Wall

Rubudiriro rwakakomba rwakauya mu Gitlow v. New York, 268 U.S. 652 (1925). Benjamin Gitlow, mushingaidzi wezvokurwira nzanga, akawanirwa mhaka mumutemo weparapatimende weNew York weparation inosimudzira kuparadzwa kwehurumende. Pamhemho yake, magweta ake akapikisa kuti kutaura kwakasununguka kweFirst Amendment kwakamudzivirira pakutonga. Dare Rapamusoro rakabvuma kunzwa mhaka yacho, uye nepo pakupedzisira rakatsigira kupwirira pakodzero dzemhosva (kuwana kuti kutaura hakuna kudzivirirwa nemhaka yokuti kwakaparira “ngozi iripo neinovapo"), Dare rinoitwa chiziviso chemitemo: “Kuitira kuti isu tigova nerusununguko rwokutaura. Izvo kusunungurwa nokubudiswa kwechibvumirano chaGeromedzo pakati pekodzero huru kupfurikidza nekodzero dzomunhu oga oga kupfurikidza nokudzivirirwa kupfurikidza nokudzivirirwa kweGedzo.

Iri discum(hwusai kusiri madikanwa kukuvata (jere) rakasainwa kuti Dare rakanga richidisa kushandisa dziviriro dzakasununguka kuhurumende. Gitlow nokudaro yakava mhaka yokutanga umo Dare Rapamusoro rakabatanidzwa zvakajeka gadziriro yeBill of Rights kupfurikidza neScreate Process ye14th Amendment’s. Chisarudzo chacho chakazarura suo nokuda kwezakawandasarudzo dzakatevera, uye nguva yokubatanidzwa kwezvisarudzo yakanga yavamba.

Nhau Dzapakuvamba Dzapashure

Mumakore akatevera Gitlow, Dare rakabatanidza dzimwe maruramiro anoverengeka eFirst Amendment. Stomberg v. California (1931) yakarova mutemo wehurumende unorambidza kuratidzwa kwomureza mutsvuku, uchibatanidza kodzero kurusununguko rwegungano uye kutaura kwokufananidzira. [FLT:] Minnesota [1931] [[FL:3] akashandisa chitsama chakasununguka chemitemo yokudhinda kuzvinhu, kusimbisa kuti zvirambidzo zvakatangira zvakanga zviri zvokusaiswa musengwa nenzvimbo nemwero yehurumende. [[FLT] DCOM] Jonge. [FF] V [FFFF] [FFF] [F]

Asi Dare rakafamba nokungwarira nokumwe kugadziridzwa. Mu Palko v. Connecticut, 302 U.S. 319 [1937], mukwiridzi akataura kuti mutemo weConnecticut waibvumira dare kukwidziridza mutongo wetsotsi kudarika pembedzo yeFindmer Amendment, yaakataura kuti inofanira kubatanidzwa. Mutongi Benjamin Cardozo, kunyora nokuda kweDare, akaramba kutaura kwacho. Iye akaisa musiano wakakomba: kodzero idzo bedzi dzakanga dziri “mufungo wemhoshonga yerusununguko rwekodzero dzakarairwa” uye“ chirongwa cheSabatanuro cheSabatanuro chedare reAmerica” Yaizoiswa mumuitiro wakakomba. Kukanganisa, kwakajeka, akarangarira kuti mupimo waro nemhaka yeSangano yakaitwa nemitemo yemitemo yemitemo yavanhu.

Palko “kurongwa kworusununguko rwakarongwa” kwaizodzora kwamakumi amakore. Pasi pomupimo iwoyo, Dare rakawedzera pashoma napashoma maruramiro kubva kuChina, Chitanhatu, uye Sendrey Amendments, asi pashure bedzi pokunzvera mumwe nomumwe mukurwisana nemupimo weruramisiro huru. Iyi nhevedzano yakareva kuti gadziriro dzakawanda dzeBill of Rights dzakaramba dzisina kubatanidzwa kutozosvikira gare gare zvikuru(na gare gare zvikuru) vamwe, vakadai sekodzero kudare guru, havasati vamboshandisirwa kumitemo.

Adamson muAwake! California (1947): Nharo Dzose Dzenharo

Nhamo yakananga zvikurusa pamutoo wakasarudzwa yakauya Adamson v. California, 332 U.S. 46 (1947). Admiral Dewey Adamson akapomerwa mhaka yokuponda mudare reCalifornia. Pakutongwa, muchuchisi akatsinhira pamusoro pokukundikana kwaAdhamason kupupurira, uye mutongi akarayira vatongi kuti kungagona kubudisa ratidziro yakaipa kubva mukunyarara kwake. Adamson akapikisa kuti ikoku kwakaputsa ropafadzo yeFindmailment kuzviisa pasi pogaro pako, iyo akataura kuti yaifanira kubatanidzwa zvizere mukurwisana namaruwa. Dare Gurusarukota, ne5-4, rakaramba kutaura kwake.

Mutongi Felix Frankfurter, achinyorera voruzhinji, akasimbisazve Palko “kuedza kwakarongwa kwerusununguko”. Iye akadavira kuti chitsama cheGavhura cheFindro yeFind 5 hachina kuitwa kuti chishande kuhurumende kupfurikidza neGuerti Clausce nemhaka yokuti kutonga kwose kwose, kwete mutemo wakananga wehurumende, wakanga uri rugwaro rwemitemo. Kupesana, kwakatungamirirwa naMutongi Hugo Black, kwakaisa chibvumikiso chine simba. Black akadzivisa kuti revo yapakuvamba yeMitemo ye 145 yePremendementment kana kuti Immunistein Claus Claus yakava nedonzo kuita Bill yekodzero yekodzero dzekodzero dzekodzero pagwepo pashoko. Yakabatanidza kunyange rondedzero yenhau yaHarcestery kuti atsigire, aibatanidzawo kuti Spaner Case Caserce yakaita kuti givine. Oy Dougnner (Blans), uye Gracton (w Gost Doogn Grognner) yakadzoritiveritiveritiveritiveriti

Adamson haana kuchinja mutemo; Dare rakapfuurira kushandisa kubatanidzwa kwakasarudzwa. Asi kusabvumirana kwakasimba kwakakwidziridza kurukurirano yose yakabatanidzwa pamwero wakakwirira zvikurusa wehurukuro yebumbiro-mitemo. Nepo murangariro weBlack usina kutongoraira voruzhinji, wakapesvedzera Dare kujekesa zvakajeka zvikuru chikonzero nei dzimwe kodzero dzakanga dziri dzinokosha uye dzimwe dzakanga dzisiri. Mhaka yacho inoramba iri chiratidzo chekurukurirano pamusoro pedzidziso dzapakuvamba, manyoro, uye basa rakafanira rejadiary.

Zvinetso Zvakazouya Nokuwedzera Kwokusarura

Kuparwa Kwemhosva Nedare reWarren

Kukura kunoshamisa zvikurusa kweIncorporation Doctrine kwakaitika pasi peMutongi Mukuru Earl Warren muna 1960. Dare reWarren rakaramba “mupimo wenhau waFrankfurter waidzorwa zvikuru mukuda mutemo uyo gadziriro ipi neipi yairangarira kuva“ yakadzika midzi kwazvo mumagamuchidzanwa nehana zvavanhu vedu zvokuti yaizorangarirwa sechinhu chinokosha” yaizobatanidzwa zvizere, nerondedzero dzayo dzose dzehurumende. Ikoku kwakatungamirira kukuitwa kworudzi rwekodzero dzeutsotsi.

Nyaya huru dzinosanganisira:

  • Mapp v. Ohio (1961): yakabatanidza mutemo weGavhuremhedhedhedhed [Dzine], kuvhara hurumende kushandisa ufakazi hunowanwa zvisiri pamutemo.
  • Gideon v. Wainwright (1963): Yakabatanidza maruramiro eSi6 Amendment kuzano, achivimbisa gweta nokuda kwavapomerwi vasina mhaka mumhaka dzemhosva.
  • Malloy v. Hogan (64):[[FLT] Muchikamu] Adamson akatonga, achibatanidza ropafadzo yeFirefemendi yeshanu mukupesana nokuzvitonga.
  • Pointer v. Texas (65): Yakabatanidza maruramiro eTS: Kutarisana nezvapupu.
  • Klopefer v. North Carolina (1967): Yakabatanidza Hurumende yechitanhatu maruramiro okutonga kwokukurumidza.
  • Duncan v. Louisiana (1968): Yakabatanidza maruramiro eTS: Amendment kudare rinobetsera vatongi mumhaka dzoutsotsi dzakakomba.

Pakasvika mugumo wenhambo yeWarren, inenge dziviriro dzose dzakawanikwa mukuvandudzira kusere kwokutanga dzakanga dzashandiswa kunyika. Chikamu chikuru bedzi chakapesana chakanga chiri chikamu chezvikamu zvitatu zvechikwata chavarwi (zvisina kumbonyorwa mumashoko akapoteredza), Findth Amendment yapamutemo inopa mhaka, kutonga kwedare reSandetic Gemendment kwedare redare revagari vemo rekodzero dzehurumende, uye mari yeSexh Amendment yakawandisa yebhegi (kunyangana noKutonga kwoutsinye neMirango zvakabatanidzwa mu [FLT: 0] Gerinson v. Californiaignomential [F:1]). Dare reRevotion Reformation raiita kuti, nokuda kwamadonzo ose, riveirwe neGenecractive regions reRegions Requencelgions remocration rakaitwa neRous Reques revolutions.

Zvinetso Zechipiri Zve Amendeko: Heller naMcDonald

Chinetso chapashure pezana ramakore chakatanhamara zvikurusa nechapamberi pezana ramakore makumi maviri nerekutanga chaibatanidza maruramiro okuchengeta nokutakura zvombo. Kwamakumi amakore, Pession Yechipiri yakanzwisiswa kudzivirira maruramiro akabatanidzwa kubasa ramagandanga, uye Dare Gurusa reChipiri rakaramba nguva dzose kunzwa zvinetso. Iyo yakachinja ne Jerifish of Columbia v. Heller (2008), umo Dare, nevhota, rairangarira kuti Benementmentation inodzivirira munhu worudyi kuti ave nechibharo mukati momusha. Zvisinei, Hellardher aitaura muruwa rweFilimpia) , uye kuruboshwe kuruboshwe kana kuti kurudyi.

Mubvunzo iwoyo wakapindurwa makore maviri gare gare mu McDonald v. City of Chicago, 561 U.S.742 (2010). Otis McDonald, mugari weChicago, akadenha kurambidzwa kweguta, achipikisa kuti Reformation yeChipiri yakabatanidzwa muGarandment ye145. Dare rakabvuma, asi ruramisiro yakaparadzanisa pamifungo yakafanira yakafanira. Murangariro wakanyorwa naSamuel Alito, wakatsamira paChibvumirano chaITrevo, achidudza muenzaniso unosarudzwa zvino. Crence, achibatanidza mutongo wakasiana murutongeso, akagovera nzira yakasiana: Ayati kana kuti Immagnous inofanira kudzivirirazve.

McDonald yakanga iri rukundo runoshamisa rwavatsigiri veSecond Amendment uye yakaratidzira kuti Incorporation Doctrine inoramba iri nzvimbo ine simba uye inokwikwidziridzwa.

Nharo Dzinopfuurira Negadziriro Dzisina Kubatanidzwa

Pasinei zvapo nokupedziswa kwodokubatanidzwa kweBill of Rights, gadziriro dzinoverengeka dzinosara dzisiri panosvika Iweneth Amendment. Dzinokosha zvikurusa ndeidzi:

  • , Dare rapamusoro rakaramba kuda hurumende kushandisa matare makuru; chisarudzo ichi hachina kutongotongwa. Mu [FLT] Hurtado v. California (1884)
  • [1] Dare reChivil Jury Julment Rekurura rudyi: Dare Gurusa rakaitwa mu Minneapolis & St. Louis Railtrand Co. v. Bomolis (16) kuti Hurumende yeSandement haipindidzwi. Naizvozvo ingaganhurira kutongwa kwedare revagari vemo, chero bedzi vachipa mutoo wakati wakasiana.
  • Kubatanidza Kunoitwa Varwi neFomment: Nepo mashoko nenhau zvisingamboitwi zvakananga mumashoko akapoteredza enyika, mashoko acho nenhau zvinokarakadza kuti angagona kubatanidzwa sekodzero inokosha yokudzivirira zvakavanzika zvepamusha, asi hapana nyaya yeDare Rapamusoro zvikuru yakambotaura nezvayo.
  • [[FLT: 0] merfection’s Sradified Bail Claus: Kunyange zvazvo zvirango zvoutsinye nezvisiri Zvenguva dzose zvakabatanidzwa muRobinson, gadziriro yebhegi rakanyanyisa haina kushandiswa nenzira yepamutemo kunyika, kunyange zvazvo matare akaderera kazhinji kazhinji achirangarira kuti akabatanidzwa.

Nokudaro muenzaniso unosarudza unobatanidza unotaura nokuchinjika kwakati mumiitiro youtsotsi neyougaridzani, idi rinopfuurira kuparira kupererwa kwemitemo netsinhiro dzenyanzvi.

Kubva Muzvinetso Zvenhau

Rukundo Rwokusarudza

Muuyo unogarisa zvikurusa wedenho dzenhau kuIncorporation Doctrine igadziriro yakasimba yokubatanidzwa kwakasarudzwa segadziriro inodzora. Dare harina kutongogamuchira rondedzero yose yokubatanidza inotsigirwa neMutongi Black kana kuti dzidziso yese yebatanidzwa pamwe chete nokurevererwa neMurphy. Panzvimbo pezvo, yakashandisa Bill of Rights vimbiso kunyika pashure bedzi pokutsunga kwakananga kuti kururama kunokosha kurusununguko neruramisiro. Iyi nzira yakabudisa mutumbi womutemo uyo uri zvose zviri zviviri wetsinhiranotevedzero nePragmatic, uchibvumira Dare kugadziridza dziviriro kutsika dzechinyakare pasina kushandura nhevedzano yapamberi.

Mutoo unosarudza wakachengetedzwawo basa rokuedza hurumende munharaunda umo kuwirirana kwaisarangarirwa kuva kunodikanwa nebumbiro remitemo. Somuenzaniso, nemhaka yokuti Peventemping Amendment haisati yabatanidzwa, masangano akasununguka kugadza zvikumbaridzo zvakasiyana- siyana nokuda kwemitongo yedare redare redare ravagari vemo. Nenzira yakafanana, kusava kubatanidzwa kwechikamu chikuru chedare rinotonga kunobvumira kutaura kushandisa zvimwe zvinhu zvinotsiva zvakadai sokunzwa kwokutanga. Uku kuchinja kunoratidzira chirongwa chehurumende chebumbiro remitemo nepo kuchiita kuti rusununguko runokosha zvikurusa rudzivirirwe munyika yose.

Tapuro Pamagariro Nesimba Rokutonga

Indiscoporation Doctrine yachinja zvikuru dzikamo yesimba pakati pehurumende yehurumende nehurumende. Pamberi peGitlow, hurumende dzakava nohunenge udzori hwose mukurondedzera muitiro woutsotsi nerusununguko rwavagari vemo. Pashure pokunge Dare Gurusa rava muiti mukuru weruramisiro yehurumende, kuongorora mitemo yomunzvimbomo nemhesano mumipimo inoraira yeChiviko cheHurumende. Iyi nhambo yakarumbidzwa seyakafanira kudzivirira kodzero dzomunhu mumwe nomumwe pakubatwa zvisina kufanira kukuru kwehurumende, asi yakashorwawo nokuda kwechiremera chikuru chedare redare nekugadzirwa kwehurumende.

Basa reDare rakakura kupfuura kududzira kwapakarepo kwamagwaro kuti ribatanidze kurangarirwa kukuru kweizvo kodzero dziri “dzakarerekera.” Kunzvera ikoko nenzira isingadzivisiki kunobatanidza marutongeso etsika nenhau, uye kwakatungamirira kunharo dzakapinza pamusoro pekudzora kwedare nemuitiro wokutonga. Kupesana munhau dzakadai sePalko naAdamson kunofanira kunyevera kuti Dare richava“ maruramiro okubatanidza zvinhu” kana rikanyanyova norusununguko zvikuru. Vatsigiri vekodzero dzokutonga, zvisinei, vanopikisa kuti Irenderlineth Amendment yakaitwa kuti iise miganhuro yomutemo pasimba rehurumende, uye kuti Dare rinofanira kuita kuti ganhuriro idzodzo dzive nesimba guru.

Kupfuurira Kurerutsa: Kodzero Itsva Nenharo Dzekare

Zvinetso zvenhau kuIncorporation Doctrine hazvisi zvokungodzidza chete; zvinopfuurira kuumba nharo dzazvino uno. Somuenzaniso, gakava pamusoro peMaropafadzo kana kuti maImmuniti Claus yabudazve muzvinoitika pamusoro pekodzero dzepfuti, kubvisa mimba, uye rusununguko rwezvemari. Mu Dobs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [20222] [Fold Organization] [1], Dare ratonga Roe v. Wade naPlated Parenthobr v. Casey, akafunga kuti Hange haadziviridzi maruramiro echibvumirano che14th kubvisa mimba. Chisarudzo ichocho chakatsamira murutivi kana kunzvera kwanhau pamusoro penhau yenhau iyi uye tsika dzakare. [5]

Nenzira yakafanana, Second Amendment inoramba iri nhau ichiripo. Pashure pa McDonald, matare maduku akaedza kushandisa “rudyi rwakakomba” kuyera nyika nemirau yepfuti yomunzvimbomo. Chisarudzo chemisi ichangobva kupfuura iyi cheDare Gurusa reNew York State Rifle & Pistol Association v. Bruen 20222 chakajekesa kuti Second Amendment inodzivirira kodzero yokutakura pfuti muruzhinji, uye kuti kutaura kungangoruramisa bedzi ganhuriro dzechibharo kupfurikidza nokuratidza “gamuchidzanwa renhema” romutemo. Kuedza ikoko kunodzokorora zvakananga simbiso pamusoro penhau namagamuchidzanwa sekodzero dzinokosha.

Masangano eIncorporation Doctrine akabatanawo nenharo dzazvino uno pamusoro pokuchinja ruramisiro youtsotsi, kuzvidavirira kwamapurisa, uye kuva woga kwemiitiro. Somuenzaniso, dziviriro yeFreadmerment panzvero isina mufungo nepfari, seyakabatanidzwa mu Map v. Ohio[[FL:1], zvino inoshanda kuhurumende nokuchengetedzwa kwomutemo kwomunzvimbomo. Dare raifanira kuchinjika dziviriro iyoyo kuruzivo rutsva rwakadai semaselfoni, GPPGPGP, uye drones. Mhaka itsva imwe neimwe inotsamira pafungidziro yenheyo yokuti Gamendero inobatanidza kutaura kweChina.NUPUPURO.

mhedziso

Zvinetso zvenhau kuIncorporation Doctrine inhau yechinjo inochinja yemitemo inowirirana, kurukurirano inotyisa yedare, uye rusununguko runofutunurwa. Kuvambira padictum muGitlow iyo yakavhura suo rokuita kuti maruramiro aenderane norudzi, kupfurikidza nokudzikamiswa kwokungwarira kwePalko, kusabvumirana kwechibvumirano chapamhenero chaAdhamason, chinjo huru dzeWarren Court, uye kudzivirira kwechipiri kunoitwa muMcDonald, dzidziso yacho yakashanduka kuva shongwe huru yomutemo wemitemo yeAmerica. Yakavimbisa kuti rusununguko rwakarongwa muChivi chekodzero zvekodzero zvadzose zvaro kunobva kuhurumende asi idzosero, zvinochengetwa mukurwisana nomugariro wokubatwa.

Bva dzidziso inoramba isina kukwana uye ichipokanidzwa. Gadziriro dzisina kubatanidzwa, ngwariro yakavandudzwa kuMaropafadzo kana kuti maImmunities Claus, uye kushandiswa kunopfuurira kwenzvero yekodzero huru kunhau itsva zvose zvinoratidzira kuti Incoration Doctrine haisi chirongwa chapera. Chirongwa chipenyu icho matare anopfuurira kubudisa nacho mipimo inokwikwikwidzana yehurumende, rusununguko, uye ruramisiro. Kunzwisisa denho dzakavaka dzidziso yacho(ne nemigumisiro yaakaita ($) inokosha nokuda kwemunhu upi noupi anotsvaka kunzwisisa revo yazvino uno uno uno unovakirwa paRevo yekodzero dzemunhu nesimba rinogara reGrevermetermentation.