Mutezo Wemitemo Wechisere: Chipitiro Chokururama Neruramisiro Yavanhu

Chirongwa ichi chipfupi asi chine simba chakaumba juripper yeAmerica kweanopfuura mazana maviri amakore. Kudzivirira kwacho kutatu kwakanyanya (kudzivirira) mari yakanyanyisa, uye zvirango zvechisimba zvehurumende zvinoitirwa utsotsi. Chinosimbiswa pana December 15, 1791, sorutivi rweBill of Rights, chinenge chirongwa ichi chakapfupika asi chine simba chakaumba nyika yeAmerica neapo neapo kupfuudza kwamazana maviri amakore. Kudzivirira kwayo kusingadzorwi nebhegi zvakanyanyisa, zvisakafanira, uye zvirango zvechienzi uye zvechienzi, zvinobatira zvose zviri zviviri mukunzvera mutemo uye kuranga kwetsika kwerudzi rwetsika.

Mavambo Enhau uye Mavambo Edzidziso Dzenhema

Hurumende yeMisere haina kubuda muchinhu chisiri chinhu. Midzi yayo yakapararira munhau yemitemo yeEngland, zvikurukuru Bill of Rights yeEngland ya1689, iyo yakazivisa kuti "Baile akanyanyisa haafaniri kudikanwa, kana kuti kugadzirwa kwakaisvonaka kwakanyanyisa; kana kuti kuva noutsinye uye zvirango zvechienzi zvakatangwa. Iyi gadziriro yakanga iri mhinduro kushatiswa kwehurumende yamambo weStuart, kubatanidza zvirango zvoutsinye zvakaitirwa neDare raMambo Bench pasi poMutongi ane mukurumbira wakaipa George Jeffreys mukati mechiramende cheBlooxy yeChiratiose. Vatongi veAmerica, vakareverwa mumanyoro akadai saCheright Becria, John Locce, naMontesquie, vakaziva kuti muganhu mutsva unodikanwa nechirango chenyika yakare.

Breaccaria’s 1764 inhau Pamatsotsi napazvirango yaipesvedzera zvikuru. Iye akarangarira kuti "chirango chinofanira kukodzera mhaka" uye kuti "chinangwa chechirango hachisi chokutambudza nokutambudza munhu." Idzi pfungwa dzakanzwika zvikuru navagari veAmerica, avo vakanga vazvionera vamene kuiswa kwezvirango zvine hasha mukutonga kweBritain. Chinoitika chezvirango zvakadai sokurova, kurova, uye mateko chakazivisa kutsunga kwavagadzirisi vegadziriro yavanhu. James Mascive, munyori mukuru weGibhiriyo reRekoriod, akanyoreradzo yehurumende yechisere kuti vadzivise hurumende yeBritain mumarudzi aidzokorore.

Mbiru Nhatu Dzokudzivirira

Kunyanyisa: Kuchengeta Kushandisa Chisaririra Chokusazvidzora

Chikamu chokutanga cheReth Amendment chinorambidza bheral yakanyanyisa. Iyi gadziriro yakavakirwa munheyo huru yokuti munhu anopomerwa mhaka anorangarirwa kuva asina mhaka kutozosvikira anzi ane mhaka. Bail anobatira donzo rapamutemo: kuva nechokwadi chokuti mukwirirwi anooneka nokuda kwokutongwa pasina kuiswa mutorongo. Zvisinei, apo mari inoiswa pachitsama icho mupomerwi asingagoni kubhadhara nenzira ine mufungo, anova chishandiso chechirango pamberi pokupwiswa. Dare rapamusoro rakaita kuti mari yebhedharo iri yakakwirira apo ino "iswa pachitsama chikuru kupfuura chitsama chakakodzera kuvimbisa chitarisiko chomukwiridziridziridziridzo pakutonga (Sabrack. Boy, 342).

Pasinei zvapo neiyi dziviriro yebumbiro remitemo, gadziriro yebheyi yazvino uno yave ichitsoropodzwa zvikuru. Masangano akawanda akagamuchira mabheyili okubhadharira mari ayo anotapura nenzira isingaenzaniswi vakwirirwi vakaderera vanotambirwa, kuchitungamirira kurudzi rwokuchengeteka kwapamberi pedare kwakavakirwa papfuma. Masangano echinjo munyika yose zvino ari kutsigira nokuda kwezvishandiso zvinotsamira panjodzi namabasa edare sezvinotsiva mari. Bail Reformation Act ya1950, inobvumira vatongi vehurumende kuramba chose chose chose kuvapo kuvakwiridzi vane ngozi, akamutsawo mibvunzo pamusoro pedzikano pakati pekotsekanwo yavose nerusununguko rwomunhu. Kukwidzanwa pamusoro pechinjo yemipiso yemipiso yePrementation inoramba chaita mirangariro yefariro yetsika yeSangano yeSangano reSangano reTsvorati.

Zvibereko Zvakanyanyisa: Kuwana Mubayiro Wemari

Chikamu chechipiri chezvikamu zvinodzivirira kubhadharwa zvakanyanyisa, chichiva nechokwadi chokuti zvirango zvemari zvinowirirana nemhosva. Nepo gadziriro iyi pakutanga yakagamuchira ngwariro shoma yedare kupfuura yayo, chisarudzo cheDare Gurusa re 2019 mu Timbs v. Indiana yakasimbisazve ukoshi hwayo. Muchiitiko ichocho, Dare rakabvumirana kuti zvisakafanira zvinoshanda kumitezo kupfurikidza neMitemo ye 145 Demendementment’s Statement Clause, kubatanidzazve imwe gadziriro yaBill of Rights fortate State. Mhaka yacho yaibatanidza murume akanga ane Nyika yake inokwana $42 000 000 Revol Revost pashure pemhosva yemirimo yemirimo yakaisvonaka. Dare rakawana kuti inoshatiswa muMutengo we 1448 Classione, uye inopunzaniswa nechinei.

Chisarudzo chakaitwa nemwero yakasiana- siyana yezvibvumirano chine revo huru nokuda kwemiitiro yemitengo yavagari vemo inokundwa, iyo yakatsoropodzwa kwenguva refu senzira yokuita nayo kuti mutemo utsigire mari pakurasikirwa kwekodzero dzezvinhu. Nyika dzakapindura nemwero yakasiana- siyana yechinjo, asi uriri hwemitemo hwakatangwa ne Timbs[[FLT]] [FLT]] dzinogovera dziviriro yakakomba mukurwisana nehurumende inonyengera. Zvibereko zvakawandisa zvinoshandawo kumitero youtsotsi, dare, uye zvimwe zvirango zvemari zvinogona kuisa vanhu nechikwereti zvinoremadza mushure zvikuru pashure pokunge vapedza mitongo yavo. Sezvinopfuurira Dare Gurusarusa kukura kusvika kukuva kwayo juundiziro, zvipikirwa zvakaisvonaka zvinodzivirira zvipikirwa zvinokosha nokuda kwezvitongerwe.

Zvirango Zvoutsinye Nezvisiri Zvomuzvarirwo: Mupimo Unobatanidza Wounyengeri

Gadziriro yechitatu neyakapfuurwa kazhinji kazhinji zvikurusa yeSendment inorambidza zvirango zvoutsinye nezvisiri zvenguva dzose. Iyi mirau yave iri nhau yedudziro huru yedare, neDare Gurusa richitaura mupimo unochinja nere "mipimo inowirirana yetsika dzenzanga" ( Trop v. Dulles[[FL:1]], 356 U.S. 86, 1958). Dare rakazivisa nheyo dzinoverengeka dzinopesana neiyi mirairo yetsika yetsika yetsika" ([[FLT]] Trop [5] v.DS] zvinangwa zvokunyora zvakaenzana nemhosva, uye zvinofanira kubatira zvinangwa zvapamutemo sechirango, kudzorwa, mucaptic, uye kugadziridza.

Munhau dzakaitika, chirango choutsinye uye chechienzi chakanzwisiswa kuva chinorambidza mitoo yakati bedzi yechirango, yakadai sokupisa padanda, kukweva nokudziridza, uye mamwe marudzi okutambudza aizivikanwa navose muEngland yechi18 yezana. Zvisinei, kududzira kwazvino uno kwakakura kusanganisira kwete mitoo bedzi asiwo urefu nechirango zvine chokuita noutsotsi. Dare Rapamusorosoro rakati chikamu chacho chinoshanda kuurefu hwose hwetongero yetorongo nemigariro yaichinobatira. Ikoku kwakatungamirira kumira mitongo inokosha panhau dzinovambira pari kubva pajeri rapamusoro petorongo kuenda kutarisiro yokurapa nokuda kwevasungwa.

Chiratidzo Chenhau Dzapamusorosoro dzeDare Netapuro Yaro

Chirango chorufu: [[[FURT: 0] Furman uye

Zvichida hakuna nzvimbo yeSendroment jurisprudency yave iri yegakava guru kupfuura chirango chorufu. Mu Furman v. Georgia [772], Dare Gurusasa rakakamuraniswa zvikuru rakarova miraudzo yose yerufu yaivapo muUnited States, nenzira inobudirira kuisa chirango chenyika yose pamusoro pechirango cherufu. Chisarudzo chakaitwa murutsiro rwenzuru chaidzo pachinhu chimwe chete. Chirango chimwe nechimwe chaiperekedzwa nemirangariro mipfumbamwe yairatidzira kuderera kwemitemo yechirango. Yakadzo inodzorwa zvikurukuru yeRuramisi yeSarudzo Brennan neMarshall, yakataura kuti chirango chakanga chisina kutongwa muutsinye chipi nechipi nechirango.

Makore mana gare gare, Greg v. Georgia [77], Dare rakatsigira mitemo yakadzokororwa yechirango cherufu iyo yakagovera chirango chekutungamirira nokurangarira. Dare rakaramba richiti chirango chorufu chingava chebumbiro remitemo kana chikagona kushandiswa zvakanaka uye nguva dzose. Chisarudzo ichi chakaronga nzira yechirango chedamudzo muUnited States uye chakavamba chirongwa chokuyera chirango chemitemo chezvirango chakati. Zvirango zvakanatsa urongwa uhwu, neDare rakasarudza kuti chirango chorufu hachigoni kuiswa pavanhu vane ungwaruvara ([[FLT]]]] v.[FLT]]], 2002, pamicrol [FF]][4]]][5]]], kana kuti chisarudzo chamagadziri: [5]]]

Kutongwa Kwemhosva uye Kutongwa Kwemagwenya

Dare Refu reReformation rakavawo netapuro huru pakutongera vapari vemhosva vaduku. Mu Graham v. Florida (2010), Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti upenyu husina ganhuriro nokuda kwemhosva dzisina simba dzinoitwa navaduku. Dare rakarangarira kuti vaduku havatongoitwi zvakanaka kupfuura vakuru nemhaka yechisarudzo chavo chinoderera uye simba guru rokuvandudza. Makore maviri gare gare, mu [[FLT:]] Miller. Alabama v[FLT] [FG3]] [202], Dare rakatambanurira uku kurangarira uku kuuraya, kurangarira upenyu pasina mitsetse yavana. Hakubvumirwiswi nokuda kwedare.

Zvisarudzo izvi zvinoratidza kuwedzera kuzivikanwa kwokuti Kupa Mvura Mirefu kwevaduku kunoda kuti zvive zvakati wandei mukutongerwa mutongo, kunyanya kune vechiduku vaipara mhosva. Dare rakasimbisa kuti vana vakasiyana nemitemo uye kuti hurumende inofanira kugadzirisa misiyano iyi pakuranga. Zvava kukanganisa uku kwave kuchikosha: Zviuru zvevechiduku vanopara mhosva zvava kutozoramba vachiitirwa utsinye, uye vakawanda vakasunungurwa pashure pemakumi emakore okusungwa. Chidzidzo chitsva chetsinga dzouropi rwevachiri kuyaruka chakapa nheyo yezviitiko izvi zvepamutemo, chichisimbisa pfungwa yokuti Kuchinja kwepfungwa yeSande Yechisere kunofanira kugadziridza kunzwisiswa kutsva kwesayenzi.

Mamiriro Ezvinhu Mujeri uye Kugadziridzwa Kwemitemo Yechisere

Dare Refutal Reformation rinoisawo misengwa kuvakuru vakuru vetorongo kugovera migariro yoururami. Mu Estelle v. Gamble [1976], Dare Gurusa rakataura kuti "kuregeredza kusakendenga zvinodikanwa zvakakomba zvokurapa zvavasungwa" kunoumba chirango chine utsinye nechisina kufanira. Mupimo uyu unoda kuratidza kuti vakuru vakuru vetorongo vanoziva uye vanofuratira ngozi yakanyanyisa kuutano kana kuti chengeteko. Dare rakashandisa uyu mupimo kumigariro yakadai sokunyanyisa, zvokudya zvisina kukwana, kukuvadziko kukunyanyisa kwekuvadziko kudzivirira vasungwa pamasimba masimba masimba pamaoko evamwe vasungwa.

Misi ichangobva kupfuura iyi, Dare rakanetsana nenhau yokuti California rinofanira kuderedza migariro yetorongo inokundikana noune kusakendenga kunogona kuputsa Kurem're. Mu Brown v. Plata (2011], Dare rakatsigira murayiro wedare wakaderera waida kuti California aderedze chiverengero chayo chetorongo kuti chideredzeredzere nokuvandudza tarisiro yezvoutano hwepfungwa. Dare rakawana kuti kukundikana kwehurumende kugovera tarisiro yakakwana yakaguma ne "kutambura kusina maturo uye rufu" uye kuti mushonga, nepo kurapa, kwakanga kuri madikanwa kudzivirira kodzero dzemitemo. Izvi zvinosimbisa uku kuwedzera kukura kwemari inopfumbira nokurevera mamiriro ezvinhu echisere okusvika uye kundikano yegadziriro yezvoutano mugadziriro yemitemo youtsotsi.

Magakava Azvino Uno Nemibvunzo Isingapedziswi

Kuiswa Munzvimbo Yoga uye Chirango Chendangariro

Imwe yenhau dzinonyanyofungwa zvikuru dzeSendment munguva yazvino uno kushandiswa kwokupfigirwa kwoga kwenguva refu.Masangano ekodzero dzevanhu nenyanzvi dzezvokurapa zvakapupurira kuvadziko yakakomba yendangariro inoparirwa nokuzviparadzanisa kwakarebesa, kubatanidza kuora mwoyo, funganyo, mifungo, uye kuzviuraya. United Nations Special Rapporteur pamusoro pokutambudzwa kwave kuchiratidzira kupfigwa kwenguva refu kwemazuva anopfuura 15 sorudzi rwokutambudza.

Matare epasi pevhu akasvika pamhedziso dzinopesana, nokuwana kuti kuzviparadzanisa kwakawedzerwa kunogona kuputsa Eighth Amendment apo kunoparira kuvadziko yakakomba yendangariro uye vamwe vanonongedzera kuvatarisiri vetorongo. Nhau yokuti kupfigwa uri woga kunoumba utsinye uye chirango chechienzi inotsamira pazvinhu zvinoverengeka, kubatanidza kupedza nguva uri woga, mamiriro ezvinhu okupfigirwa, uye mamiriro ezvinhu epfungwa omusungwa. Sayenzi yenzanga painoenderera mberi kunyora kuvadziko yekuvadziko yekuva gweta riri roga.

Zvinu, Mabhazi, uye Vakwereti Vazvino Uno

Kupindirana kweSendreh Amendment nokupa mhaka urombo kwazova chinhu chikuru chinoitirwa pamutemo kudzora nokuchinja. Nyika dzakawanda nemadzitateguru anodzorwa mari, mari, uye mari inobhadharwa nedare pavanopomerwa mhosva, kazhinji kazhinji pasina kugona kubhadhara. Kana vanhu vasingagoni kubhadhara misengwa iyi yemari, vangaiswa mujeri, kana kuti marezenisi avo anoregwa, kana kuti kutarisana nemimwe migumisiro inotenderwa. Vatsoropotedza vanoti izvi zvinoenzana neshanduro yejeri remazuva ano, iro Dare Rapamusoro rakati ragara riri remhosva.

Dare rapamusoro rakagovera nhungamiro panhau iyi. Mu Bearden v. Georgia [193], Dare rakati dare harigoni kubvisa nokuzvidira kutendeka uye kuisa mukwiridziridziri uyo akaita nhamburiko dzokubhadhara faindi asi asingagoni kuita kudaro. Kunyange zvakadaro, Dare harina kupedza zvizere nhau yeapo kugadziriswa kwefaindi nemitero rimene kunoputsa kutevedzerwa kweredhi. Tims[FLT], kunyange zvazvo kuchikosha, hakuna kutanga kuedza kwakajeka nokuda kwokusarudza apo shooka kuri "svoslate". Madare anoedza kupfurikidza kushandisa mwero, anoguma kukuita kuti aenderere mberi. [[FLT] Timbs]

Kuchinja Kwezvikamu Zvisere Mumaonero Anoita Vanhu

Hurumende yeMitemo yeMitemo yeChibvumirano cheRevenu yeMitemo yeNyika Yose, nepo ichisiya nyika yeAmerica, inowirirana nemitemo yekodzero dzevanhu yamarudzi ose. Chikamu 5 cheMutemo Wenyika Yose wekodzero dzevanhu chinorambidza "kutambudzwa kana kuti kuva noutsinye, kubatwa kana kuti kunyadziswa kana kuti chirango. Nenzira yakafanana, Sungano yeInternational on Civil and Politics Rights, uko United States iri mubato, ine utsinye, isina hunhu, kana kuti chirango chinozvidza. Mamwe marudzi akawanda akagamuchira gadziriro dzemitemo yemitemo inoenzanisirwa paSend Rendement, uye matare okumwe anowanzodudza American Externet Reformation jursived Reconstrustrustrustment, muzvisaruso zvawo.

Nenzira inofadza, United States yave ichiparadzaniswa mukuita kwayo chirango chorufu chinopfuuridzirwa pakati pehurumende dzinotonga dzamadokero. European Union yakabvisa chirango cherufu uye inoda kuti nyika dziri mitezo dziite saizvozvo somutezo wemitezo. Sangano reSangano Romubatanidzwa Wenyika Dzapasi Pose rakadana rakumbirazve nokuda kwedariro renyika yose pakuuraya. Nepo Dare Gurusa redare risina kuva nechirango cherufu kuti risave risingawiriraniswi, komba yeAmerica yejurispruuncince yave iri kuganhurirwa kukushandiswa kwayo. Nhamba inoderera yokuuraya uye mitongo yorufu muUnited States inoratidzira transformation yakafara, iyo inowirirana ne "mipimo inochinjika yetsika inoyera" iyo Dare rakazivisa sechikamu cheSaredhisformed Rendement.

Kuenzanisa kwenyika dzakawanda kunogona kuva kunorayiridza mune dzimwe nzvimbowo. Somuenzaniso, nyika dzakawanda dzeEurope dzine mitongo mipfupi zvikuru kupfuura United States, kunyange nokuda kwemhosva dzakakomba. Dare reGermany Federal Constitutional Court rakati nheyo yokuwirirana inoda kuti mitsetse isave inopesana zvikuru, uye kuti hurumende ine musengwa unobvuma kusimudzira kugadziridzwa kwevatadzi. Nheyorara inowirirana nerevedzo yeAleighth Amendment pakuenternement pakuenzana uye kurapa vanhu, kunyange kana migumisiro yacho yakasiyana. Sezvo matare eAmerica anoramba achitanga dzidziso yeSendrender Amelika angawana ukoshi mukurangarira kuti mamwe marudzi anopindura sei mibvunzo yakafanana.

Zvidzidzo Zvinoshanda Zvevazivi Vezvemitemo

Magweta, vatongi, uye vagadziri vemitemo, Serth Amendment inogovera chishandiso chine simba nokuda kwezvirango zvakanyanyisa kana kuti zvisingaenzaniswi. Magweta anodzivirira anogara achikwidziridza nyaya dzinobatanidza bheray, faindi, kupiwa mhosva, uye mamiriro emajeri. Zvinetso zvinobudirira zvinogona kuguma nemirau yakaderedzwa, kuvandudza mamiriro ezvinhu okuita matsotsi. Vanotambudza uye vaiti vemitemo vanofanira kuva nechokwadi chokuti chirango chavanotsvaka kana kuti vanoita maererano nemitemo yemitemo yepamutemo. Kukundikana kuita kudaro kunogona kuguma nokudhura mitongo, kugadziridza zvitendero, uye kukuvadza mukurumbira.

Dare reHell Amendment rine revowo nokuda kweyamuro yapashure pekuyananiswa uye kudzorwa kwemhosva. Vavakidzani vari kubatira mitongo inoputsa Evelh Amendment vangafanira kushatirirwa kana kuti kusunungurwa. Dare Gurusa rakaziva kuti mutongo unoisa miganhu miduku yemitongo yejeri paurefu hwetorongo, zvikurukuru nokuda kwevaduku vapari vemhosva vasina masimba masimba. Vatengi vanomirira vatengi vanotarisana nemirairo refu vanofanira kusanonzvera kana mutongo wacho uchiputsanisa miraudzo inowirirana nerevo yetsika dzinodzo inodzorwa nefambiro mberi yesayenzi yemipimo yetsika nefambiro mberi.

Mugumisiro: Kugamuchirwa Kusingaperi kweFirimendeji Yechisere

Dare reMitemo Resere rinopfuura zvikuru kunyora nhau. Igadziriro mhenyu yebumbiro remitemo inopfuurira kuumba gadziriro yemitemo yetsotsi yeAmerica munzira huru. Kuvambira pakunzwa kwebhero kusvikira kunzvimbo yokuurayirwa, nheyo dzaro dzokuwirirana, chiremera, uye rudzi rwomunhu zvinobatira senzvero yenguva dzose pasimba rehurumende. Kuchinja kwemhindumupindu kwenguva refu kunoratidzira kuzvipira kwenzanga kururamisiro nokuziva kuti mwero wekubudirira ndiwo mabatire aunoita avo vakabatira pamutemo.

Sezvo United States inorwisana nenhaka yokusungwa kwavazhinji, kusawirirana kwedzinza mukutongerwa, uye gakava rinopfuurira pamusoro pechirango chorufu, Reth Amendment icharamba iri pakati pekurukurirano. Mutauro wayo unochinjika, wakavakwa nenhau asi usina kuganhurirwa nenzwisiso yenhau, unoibvumira kuchinjira kumigariro mitsva nezivo itsva. Kana mubvunzo uri kukuvara kwemitemo kwokupfigwa kwoga kwenguva refu, kuputsanya faindi inopfumbaniswa nevanopomerwa, kana kuti kuurawa kwavanhu vane chirwere chakakomba, Sength Amendment inogovera gadziriro yokunzvera zvinangwa zvine maruramiro apamutemo echirangono chechirangono chaidzwa.

Pakupedzisira, Dare reRendement reHereth rine pfungwa yakapfava asi yakakomba: kuti kunyange mukurondwa kweruramisiro, hurumende inofanira kubata munhu ari wose nomwero wakati wechiremera noruremekedzo. Iyi pfungwa, yakazvarwa mukudzorwa kwenhau yebumbiro remitemo reEngland uye yakanatswa kupfuudzira mazana maviri amakore echinoitika cheAmerica, inoramba iri musimboti womusengwa worudzi kumutemo. Sezvo chaunga chinopfuurira kushanduka, saizvozvowo revo nokushandiswa kweSendhendment Amend, ichivimbisa kuti dziviriro dzarwo dzacho dzinoramba dziri dzakakodzera nokuda kwezvizvarwa zvinouya.

Nokuda kwaavo vanofarira kunzvera Dare reMitemo Rechisere muudzame hukuru, LGELL Information Institute paCornell Law School inochengeta kupeta kwakaisvonaka kworugwaro rwekugadziridza nokududzira. project paChicago-Kereji yeMutemo inogovera mashoko akakwana enhau hurusa dzeDare gurusa, kubatanidza idzo dzinobatanidza Enyereth Amendment. Mukuwedzera, [[FLT:] remations Liberation Union inopa mipiro yezvipo zvokurangarira nokurwisa nokuramba kurwisana neutsinye muUnited States.