Inkqubo yomthetho isebenza ngemigangatho yeenkundla elungelelanisiweyo, nganye inendima yayo eyahlukileyo kunye neembopheleleko. Ukuqonda eli qela lecawa kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela amatyala aqhubekeka ngayo kwinkqubo yomthetho, indlela iimpazamo ezisemthethweni ezilungiswa ngayo, nendlela iinkcazelo ezigunyazisiweyo ezivela ngayo. Inkundla ezilawulayo azikho nje kuphela ekulungelweni kolawulo; zikhusela ukungaguquguquki, okusesikweni, kunye nomthetho ngokuqinisekisa ukuba iingxabano ziconjululwe kumgangatho ofanelekileyo kwaye iinkundla eziphakamileyo ziyakwazi ukuhlaziya izigqibo ezisezantsi zenkundla. Eli nqaku linikela ukuvumisa okukhawulezileyo kwenkundla, izigwebo ezithatha inkqubo, kunye nemigaqo ekhokelayo isigaba ngasinye.

Isiseko Sezigwebo Zenkundla

Phezulu-yonke imimandla---aphotho-apho kuhlanga, urhulumente, okanye iphondo----ascipt imisela iqumrhu lenkundla lokwabelana ngegunya lenkundla kwaye ichaza ulwalamano phakathi kweenkundla. Izizathu eziphambili zesi sakhiwo senkcubeko ziquka:

  • Juridiction: Iinkundla zabelwe iintlobo ezithile zamagunya, njengolawulo lwezikhundla eziphantsi (umz., umthetho wentsapho, irhafu, i-admiralty) kunye nolawulo lwezwe (umz., isithili, iphondo, isiphaluka). Iinkundla ezisezantsi ziphatha uluhlu olubanzi lwamatyala kummandla olinganiselweyo, ngexa iinkundla eziphezulu zinemithetho ekhethekileyo encinane, imigaqo ekhethekileyo.
  • Isombululo se-Error: Iqela leqela lenqanawa livumela iinkundla ezilawulayo ukuba zilungise iimpazamo ezenziwe ziinkundla zamatyala, nokuba kukusetyenziswa komthetho okanye kwimithetho yesithethe. Ngaphandle kwenkqubo yophindo, izigqibo ezibuthathaka zizakuma zingalungiswanga.
  • Uguqulo kunye nejaji: Iinkundla eziphakamileyo, ingakumbi iinkundla eziphakamileyo, zimisela umzekelo odibanisa iinkundla ezisezantsi. Oku kufana kuqinisekisa ukuba amatyala afanayo achatshazelwa ngendlela efanayo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba yiyiphi ijaji egwetyiweyo okanye abachopheli-tyala abalivayo elo tyala.
  • [[NTL:0] Ubudedenti: Inkqubo elawulayo inika incam ecacileyo yelishwa. Xa inkundla ephakamileyo ithe yasilela, isigqibo sisokokugqibela, sinika uvalo kumaqela nakuwonke-wonke.

Ngelixesha ukumila jikelele kweqela labefundisi kufana namazwe aqhelekileyo (njenge-United States, i-United Kingdom, iKhanada, ne-Australia), kukho umahluko obalulekileyo kwinani lemigangatho, indibano ezinika igama, nobungakanani bohlolo lwe-appelte. Iinkqubo zomthetho wamakhaya (umz., iFransi, iJamani) zikwagcina ii-hiercarchers, nangona indima yemizekelo inganyanzelekanga.

Amanyathelo Amathathu Aphambili Eenkundla

Inkoliso yeenkundla ezilawulayo isenokuqondwa ngeethala ezintathu ezisisiseko: iinkundla zamatyala, iinkundla ezigwebayo, kunye neenkundla eziphakamileyo.

Iinkundla Zetyala: Isiqalo

Iinkundla zetyala, ezikwabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zemeko yokuqala, iinkundla zesithili, okanye iinkundla eziphakamileyo, zilapho kuqalwa khona amatyala. Zonke iinkundla zinikelwa, amangqina, kunye namatyala (ukuba akhona) afumana izibakala. Ijaji yetyala ijonge imicimbi, imigaqo ephikisayo, kwaye ikhupha umgwebo wokugqibela ukuba akukho mgwebi ugwetywayo.

Iinkundla zamatyala zahlulwe zangamacandelo amabini ahlukahlukeneyo:

  • Iinkundla zolawulo jikelele:[ Ezi ntena ziva uninzi lwemicimbi yamakhaya neyolwaphulo-mthetho. Kwinkqubo karhulumente wase-U.S., iinkundla zesithili ziinkundla zegunya elilawulayo jikelele. Kumazwe amaninzi, iinkundla eziphezulu zephondo zifeza le ndima.
  • Iinkundla zolawulo ezithintelweyo: Ezi ntena zisingatha iintlobo ezithile zamatyala, ezifana neemeko ezincinci, ukwaphulwa kwendlela yokuhamba-hamba, iprobate, okanye imicimbi yentsapho. Imizekelo iquka iinkundla zamajaji, iinkundla zobulungisa, kunye neenkundla zikamasipala. Izigqibo ezivela kwiinkundla zegunya elilinganiselweyo zinokubhenela kwinkundla yamatyala jikelele efuna ukuchotshelwa ngokutsha ([] ukuphengulula ityala ]) okanye ngqo kwinkundla ye-amplate.

Uxanduva oluphambili lwenkundla echongiweyo kukumisela ingxelo eyinyaniso. Ngenxa yokuba iinkundla ezichaphazelekayo zidla ngokwamkela ukufunyaniswa kwento ethethwa yinkundla echongiweyo ngaphandle kokuba ziphosakele, umgangatho wokuvavanywa kwetyala ngulapho obunabo bubalulekileyo ubungqina nempikiswano kufuneka zinikelwe khona.

IiNkundla eziBalulekileyo: Ukuhlola Imposiso

Iinkundla zokumangalela zihlala phezu kweenkundla zetyala kwaye aziqhubeli matyala matsha. Endaweni yoko, zihlola ingxelo elungiselelwe iimpazamo ezingokwasemthethweni. Le nkqubo isekelwe kwimifutshane (iimpikiswano ezibhaliweyo) kwaye ngokufuthi iimpikiswano zomlomo zisenziwa ngamagqwetha. Amaqela ezicelo aquka iijaji ezintathu (okanye ezingakumbi ezivaliweyo) ezigqiba imibuzo yomthetho, hayi inyaniso.

Imisebenzi engundoqo yohlolo lwe-Spellate iquka:

  • I-Status yohlolo: kwimibuzo yomthetho, inkundla enika imvume iphinda izenze de novo (ntsha], enganikezeli kumphathi ovavanyayo. Kwiziphumo ezichanekileyo, umgangatho udla ngokuba “nempazamo enkulu” okanye ubungqina obucacileyo, ithetha ukuba inkundla ye-appellate iza kuphazamisa inyani kuphela ukuba akukho nyani izakufumana eso sigqibo.
  • Ukulawula okungagqibekanga: Kwezinye iinkqubo, amaqela anelungelo elizenzekelayo lokubhenela kwisigwebo sokugqibela senkundla evavanyiweyo. Kwezinye (njengeNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S.), uhlolo luyiwo olucacileyo qhaba-cholacholo .
  • Isigqibo: inkundla edityanisiweyo ingaqinisekisa, iguqule, iguqule, okanye iphinde ishiye isigqibo senkundla esezantsi. Ingalibuyisela eli tyala emva kwinkundla evavanyiweyo ukwenzela iziganeko ezithe rhoqo kunye noluvo lwayo.

Iinkundla zesavenge eziphakathi (umz., iiNkundla zezibheno, iNkundla yezibheno yase-U.S. isingatha izibheno ezininzi zesiNgesi. Izigqibo zazo zibophelelekile kwiinkundla ezivavanyayo kwisiphaluka okanye kummandla wazo wengingqi kodwa zinokulawulwa yinkundla ephakamileyo.

Iinkundla Eziphakamileyo: Igunya Lokugqibela

Incopho yequmrhu lemfundo yecawa linkundla ephakamileyo (ngamanye amaxesha ebizwa ngokuba yinkundla ephakamileyo, inkundla yenkundla yokugqibela, okanye yenkundla yomGaqo-siseko). Izigqibo zayo zibophelelekile kwaye zibophelele kuzo zonke iinkundla eziphantsi kwigunya. Iinkundla eziphakamileyo zinegunya eliqhelekileyo, ithetha ukuba zikhetha amatyala aphakamisa imibuzo ebalulekileyo engokwasemthethweni, abandakanya iinkundla eziphantsi, okanye azisa imibango ebalulekileyo yemithetho-siseko.

Kwimimandla emininzi, iinkundla eziphakamileyo zikwanegunya lokuqala kudidi olumxinwa lwamatyala, njengeembambano phakathi koorhulumente okanye amatyala abandakanya oorhulumente bangaphandle. Noko ke, uninzi lwemisebenzi yazo lungaphunyezwa. Izimvo ezikhutshwe ziinkundla eziphakamileyo zimisela umzekelo okhokelela kwinkqubo yomthetho epheleleyo.

Imizekelo yeenkundla eziphakamileyo iquka iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeUnited Kingdom, neNkundla ePhezulu yaseOstreliya. Amanye amazwe angoorhulumente aneenkundla ezahlukeneyo zomgaqo-siseko (umz., iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yeJamani) esingatha uhlolo lomgaqo-siseko ngoxa inkundla ephakamileyo isingatha izibheno eziqhelekileyo.

Izakhiwo Eziyidivergente: Imizekelo evela eUnited States naseUnited Kingdom

Ukuze sibonise indlela inkundla elawulayo esebenza ngayo, khawuqwalasele iinkqubo ezimbini eziphambili.

IUnited States: Iinkqubo zeNkundla zeQumrhu neLizwe

I-U.S. iqhuba abaphathi benkundla ababini afanayo: inkqubo karhulumente kunye nenkqubo karhulumente ngamnye. Iinkundla zoManyano zisingatha amatyala avela phantsi komthetho wesizwe, umGaqo-siseko, kunye neempikiswano phakathi kwabemi bamazwe awahlukeneyo. Iqumrhu lecawa lesizwe liqulunqwe yi:

  • U.S.IiNkundla zeSithili (umgangatho wovavanyo, isithili ezingama- 94)
  • [[UMKCIT: 0] IINkundla zezibheno zase-U.S. (13 iziphaluka, kuquka iFederal zuzu)
  • [[UMKCIT: 0] UNIX .INkundla ePhakamileyo (inkundla ephakamileyo)

Iinkundla ezininzi zephondo zisingatha amatyala olwaphulo-mthetho, iimpikiswano zesivumelwano, imicimbi yempahla, nemibandela yomthetho weentsapho. Urhulumente ngamnye unetyala lakhe nenkundla yetyala, nenkundla ephakamileyo yephondo ephezulu.

Le nkqubo idibeneyo ithetha ukuba isiganeko esinye (umz. ingozi yemoto) singabangela ukuba inkundla yetyala imangalelwe kunye netyala likarhulumente. Ukuqonda imithetho yequmrhu kunye nemithetho elawulayo kubalulekile ekukhetheni i-forum elungileyo.

UBukumkani Obumanyeneyo: Inkqubo Yeqela Elineendlela Ezininzi

I-UK inesakhiwo esimanyene ngakumbi, nangona sinemithetho eyahlukeneyo yeNgilani ne-Wales, iSkotlani, kunye ne-Ireland yoMntla. INkundla ePhakamileyo yoManyeneyo yeyokubhena yoMbuso yinkundla yokugqibela yezibheno zowo omathathu amaphondo. Ngaphantsi kwayo, iNkundla yesibheno neNkundla ePhezulu isingatha izibheno ezivela kwiNkundla yeBhunga, iinkundla zamajaji, kunye neenkundla zamaphondo. Inkundla eziPhezulu zaseScopixe ephethe izibheno zolwaphulo-mthetho, kunye neNkuquluko leNgqungquthela yeNkulumo yeNtlalo isingatha izibheno zoluntu.

Inkqubo ye-UK ikwabonakalisa iinkundla ezizodwa (umz., umsebenzi, ukufuduka) ezityiselwa kwiqumrhu lenkundla. Le ndlela ixineneyo iqinisekisa ukuba amatyala aviwe ngabagwebi banobuchule obufanelekileyo, kodwa igunya elipheleleyo lokukhupha ityala lixhomekeke kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo.

Uhambo Lombandela: Inyathelo Ngenyathelo

Ukuqonda iqonga ngalinye lokuqhubekeka kwetyala kubalulekile kumagosa angokwasemthethweni nakumaqela afanayo. Nangona icandelo lomthetho lineendlela ezahlukeneyo, indlela jikelele ilandela indlela elindelekileyo.

1. Ucalulo: Ukukhalaza okanye ukumangalela

Kwimicimbi yamakhaya, inkundla ifaka isikhalazo okanye isicelo kwinkundla efanelekileyo yamatyala, ichaza izibakala kunye neziqinisekiso zomthetho. Kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, iifayile zikarhulumente zibekwa izityholo (ngokufuthi ngetyala okanye ulwazi). inkundla kufuneka ibe negunya lobuqu kummangalelwa kunye negunya lomntu onegunya lokulawula ityala.

2. Inkqubela-phambili yangaphambili

Emva kokuqokelela, amaqela abandakanyeka kwimisebenzi yangaphambi kovavanyo:

  • Iziphumo zobuphicotho-zincwadi: uTshintshiso lobungqina, kuquka ugcino, ukuncina, kunye nezicelo zoxwebhu.
  • Imilinganiselo:[[FLT: 0] Izahlulo zingayifakela intshukumo ukulahla, ukuhambisa intshukumo ukwenzela umgwebo omfutshane, okanye iintshukumo ukunyanzela ukufunyanwa kwento. Umthetho kwintshukumo ungaphelisa umba okanye unciphiso lwemiba yokuvavanya.
  • [[UMTL:0] IiNgqungquthela zoHlelo: IiNkundla zisoloko zikhuthaza amaqela ukuba ahlale, maxa wambi esebenzisa ulawulo olunyanzelekileyo.

3. Ukuvavanywa

Ukuba ityala aliconjululwanga ngaphambi kokuba kuqulwe ityala, liqhubekela phambili. Iimvavanyo zingaba kukuvavanywa kwebhentshi (ukugwetywa kuphela) okanye amatyala abachopheli-tyala. Ngethuba lokuvavanywa kwetyala. Amaqela anikela ubungqina, amangqina, abiza amangqina, kwaye aphikisa amatyala abo. Imeko irhoxisa isigwebo. Kwimeko zasekuhlaleni, umgangatho wokungqina udla ngokuba “kukungaqiniseki kobungqina”; kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho, “awuthandabuzeki ngokusengqiqweni.”

4. Intshukumo yeposi

Emva kwesigqibo, iqela eliphulukana nento lisenokuyifakela intshukumo yasemva kovavanyo njengentshukumo yomgwebo ngaphandle kwesigqibo (JNOV) okanye intshukumo yokuvavanya okutsha. Le ntshukumo icela ijaji egwebayo ukuba ibhukuqe okanye iphinde ivavanywe ngokusekelwe kwiimpazamo ezithiwe.

5. Isaziso sesibheno nodluliso

Ukuba inyathelo lasemva kwetyala alivunywanga, iqela eliphoxekileyo lingabhenela. Inyathelo lokuqala kukubhala isaziso sesibheno nenkundla egwebayo ngexesha elingqongqo (ngokunjalo iintsuku ezingama-30). Inkundla evavanyayo ngoko ilungisa irekhodi ngesibheno, kuquka iikhowudi kunye nemiboniso.

6. Yenza iphulo elifutshane nempikiswano yezono

Ummangali (onomtsalane) unikezela impikiswano emfutshane ebhaliweyo ethetha ngesizathu sokuba inkundla yetyala yenze impazamo. Ityala liphendula ngokukhusela isigwebo esifutshane senkundla echongiweyo. Inkundla yetyala ingacwangcisa iimpikiswano zomlomo, apho amagqwetha aphendula imibuzo yabagwebi. Amanye amatyala agqityelwa kuphela kwezi mfutshane.

7. Isigqibo sokuphanda nokubuyiselwa

Inkundla yetyala echazayo imbambano, enokuthi ivumelane okanye yahluleke. Ingaqinisekisa, iguqule, ilungise, okanye iphinde iqukuqele. Inkundla evavanyweyo ibhekisa phambili imicimbi ehambelana nomthetho we-applette.

Impinda Engakumbi: Shiya Isibheno Kwinkundla Ephakamileyo

Kwiinkqubo ezininzi, iqela eliphulukana nequmrhu lingacela inkundla ephakamileyo ukuba ihlole (umz., isicelo sokucela imvume yeCertiorari kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States). Inkundla ephakamileyo inika uhlolo kwicandelo elincinane kuphela lamatyala ngezantsi. Ngokucacileyo, ezo zibandakanya imibuzo ebalulekileyo okanye iingxabano phakathi kweenkundla eziphantsi. Ukuba uhlolo lukhatyiwe, isigqibo se-appellate sihlala sisombululo.

Lonke uhambo ukusuka ekugqibeni ukuya kwisigqibo sokugqibela lungathabatha iinyanga okanye iminyaka, kuxhomekeka entsonkothileyo, ekuxinaniseni kwezibuko lenqanawa, nokuba kufunwa izibheno ezininzi kusini na.

Iindidi Zetyala Nendlela Zalo Ezikhethekileyo

Ngelixesha iqumrhu eliqhelekileyo lisebenza kwiimeko ezininzi, ezinye iintlobo zengxubano zilandela iindlela ezikhethekileyo.

  • Ityala lomthetho: Ilungelo lommangalelwa lokubhenela kukholo lubalulekile, kodwa ityala lidla ngokungabhena ukuvalela ukuvalwa (ingozi ephindwe kabini). Izibongozo zesigwebo ziqhelekile. Kwezinye iindawo, kukho inkqubo eyahlukileyo yokucela isikhuseli sokukhululeka (i-corpus).
  • [[FLT: 0] Ityala leCivil:[ Izibheno zikhona ukwenzela umgwebo wokugqibela kunye nezinye iimiyalelo zodibano (umz., imimiselo). Iintshukumo kunye nentsebenziswano yetort zingabandakanya umba ontsonkothileyo wecandelo eliphindiweyo kunye nezibheno ezidityanisiweyo.
  • UMthetho wolawulo: Izigqibo ezininzi ezithathwa ngabameli bakarhulumente (umz., ukufuduka, ukhuseleko loluntu) ziphinda zibuye zilungiswe kuqala yinkundla yolawulo. Izibheno ngoko ziya kwinkundla evavanyiweyo okanye kwinkundla yetyala ekhethekileyo, kwaye ekugqibeleni kwinkundla ephakamileyo. Umgangatho wohlolo usoloko unika ukuthotyelwa kwento kwiqumrhu elifumana iqumrhu.
  • Ityala lomthetho-siseko: Imingeni kumgaqo-siseko wemithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo zidla ngokutsibela kwinkundla ephakamileyo okanye kwinkundla ekhethekileyo yomgaqo-siseko. Amanye amagunya, njengeJamani, ahlula uhlolo lomgaqo-siseko kwizicelo eziqhelekileyo.

Indima Yokuqhatha Nokukhanyisa

Izikhulu zenkundla zixhomekeke kakhulu kwimfundiso ye stare decis (igama lesiLatin elithetha “ukuma ngokwezinto ezigqitywe ngoku”). Iinkundla ezisezantsi kufuneka zilandele imizekelo emiselwe ziinkundla eziphezulu phakathi kweqela elinye lemfundo. Lo mgaqo udala ukuxelwa kwangaphambili nokungaguquguquki.

Ngokomzekelo, isigqibo seNkundla yezibheno yase-U.S. sibophelelekile kuzo zonke iinkundla zesithili kweso siphaluka. Kodwa ukuba esinye isiphaluka sikhupha isigqibo esingqubanayo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-United States isenokuthatha amanyathelo ukusombulula eso sahlulo, idala umthetho wesizwe olinganayo. Imizekelo yenkundla ephakamileyo ibophelele kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi ngaphandle kokuba inkundla ngokwayo kamva izilawula ngokungeyo.

Ngaphandle kokujongwa, inkundla nganye ibinokufikelela kwizigqibo ezahlukeneyo kwimibandela efanayo yomthetho, ijongele phantsi umthetho. Umthetho onyanzelisayo womthetho ungundoqo.

Ukuhlolisiswa Kwezogwebo Nomphumo Wako

Uhlolo lwezeejaji ngamandla eenkundla okuhlola enoba imithetho okanye izenzo zolawulo ziyavumelana nomgaqo-siseko. Kumazwe amaninzi, eli gunya libekwe kwinkundla ephakamileyo (okanye inkundla ekhethekileyo yomGaqo-siseko). Uhlolo lwezeejaji luvumela inkundla ephakamileyo ukuba ibethe umthetho owephula amalungelo asisiseko okanye ogqitha igunya likarhulumente.

Umzekelo, amandla eNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. ekwakheni uhlolo lwezomthetho asekwa kwi- Marbury v. Madison (103] [1803]. Izigqibo ezinjenge Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo [1954]) yaguqula ibutho ngokuvakalisa i-paramente engekho sigqeba. KwiUK, iNkundla ePhakamileyo inokuthi ingakwazi ukuwisa umthetho ogunyaziweyo kodwa ayinakuwenza monakalo wePalamente (ngokukwimeko yepalamente); endaweni yoko, inokukhupha ukhupho lwezimvo lokungamelana phantsi koMthetho-Nkulumbuso (umthetho).

Uhlolo lwezeejaji luqinisekisa ukuba onke amasebe karhulumente asebenza phakathi kwemiqathango yomgaqo-siseko. Ngenxa yokuba amandla esetyenziswa kwincopho yenqanaba lenkundla, anegunya elikhulu nesiphelo.

Isiphelo

Inkundla ingumthombo wayo nayiphi na inkqubo esemthethweni exabisa ukungaguquguquki, okusesikweni, kunye nomthetho. Ukusuka kwinkundla yamatyala apho amatyala aqala khona, ngeenkundla zezahlulelo ezilungisa iimpazamo, kwinkundla ephakamileyo enika utoliko lokugqibela, umgaqo ngamnye ufeza indima eyahlukileyo. Ukuqonda indlela amatyala aqhubekeka ngayo kule nkqubo kunika abantu amandla okulawula iimpikiswano ezingokwasemthethweni ngokunempumelelo, nokuqonda ukubaluleka komzekelo, nokuqonda ii-checkings kunye nolungelelwano olufakwe kwinkqubo yezomthetho. Ukuba ungumfundi womthetho, umnini weshishini, okanye ummi, ubamba ukurhoxina kwetyala.

Ukuphanda ngokubhekele phaya, bona ingcaciso U.S. yengcaciso yesakhiwo senkundla yequmrhu lesizwe, i-Cornell Information Institute , kunye ne jijinithi yephepha kwisakhiwo senkundla yenkundla . Ukunyukela nzulu kukwi [ kukwacetyiswa ukuba kuqondwe indlela i-state yomthetho weqela leenqanawa okwixesha elidlule ngayo.