Inkqubo yenkundla yelo phondo eUnited States imiswe njengesiseko sedemokhrasi yaseMerika, ijongene nokutolikwa kwemithetho, ukucombulula iimbambano, nokulondolozwa kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Embindini wale nkqubo ngabagwebi nabagwebi abalawula amatyala, benze imithetho engqongqo, baze balungise ulawulo olusemthethweni lwesizwe. Kubafundi nabafundisi, bafumana ukuqonda okunzulu ngendlela ijaji yesizwe esebenza ngayo kunye nendima ecacileyo yamalungu ayo ekufundeni nasekubopheni. Eli nqaku lilungiselela ukuqaliswa okuqululweyo kwesakhiwo senkundla yesizwe, iimbopheleleko zabagwebi nezigwebo, inkqubo yokumiswa, kunye nempembelelo enzulu yezigwebo zezemthetho kwibutho labantu.

Isakhiwo esineziqu ezithathu esidityanisiweyo seFederal Judiciary

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo yesizwe ilungelelaniswe yaba ngamanqanaba amathathu angundoqo, ngalinye elinemisebenzi nemithetho ekhethekileyo. Esi sakhiwo solawulo siqinisekisa ukuba iimpikiswano zomthetho ziphethwe kakuhle kwaye uhlolo lwezomthetho lukhona ukulungisa iimpazamo nokucacisa imigaqo esemthethweni. Iithala ezintathu ziiNkundla zeSithili sase-U.S. (umgange wogcino-lwazi), iiNkundla zeZibheno (umgamo wesibheno), kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo yeUnited States (inkundla ephakamileyo). Ukuqonda iindima ezahlukileyo zomgangatho ngamnye kungundoqo wokuqonda indlela okusetyenziswa ngayo okusesikweni kumgangatho wolawulo.

IiNkundla ZeSithili zaseUnited States: Umgangatho Wetyala

Iinkundla zesithili ziintendelezo zenkqubo karhulumente. Zisingatha uludwe olubanzi lwamatyala, kuquka imicimbi yamakhaya neyolwaphulo-mthetho. Urhulumente ngamnye ubuncinane unenkundla yesithili enye, kunye namaphondo amakhulu asenokuba neendawo ezininzi (umzekelo, iKhalifoniya inezine: Umntla, empuma, eMbindini, eMazantsi, naseMazantsi). Kukho imimandla engama-94 elawula i-othoricte kumacala eUnited States nakumasiqendulo sayo. Iinkundla zesithili zinegunya lokuqala, oko kukuthi zingokuqala ukuva ityala. Iinkundla zesithili zinokugwetywa ngabachobi (ukuchola) okanye ngumgwebi kuphela (ityala).

ABagwebi kwiinkundla zesithili bajongene nokuvelela onke amacandelo etyala, ukusuka kwimiqathango yangaphambi kwetyala kunye nobungqina bokulawula ukuya kwimiyalelo kunye nesigwebo. Bakwakhupha izigqibo kwiimvavanyo zebhedi, bavavanya ukungafezeki kobungqina, kwaye baqinisekise ukuba ityala lephondo liqhutywa kakuhle. Abagwebi beSithili bamiselwe ubomi nguMongameli kwaye baqinisekiswe yiBhunga III leMigaqo-siseko. Bancedwa ngabagwebi bamajaji, abasingatha imicimbi yokuqala kunye neembambano zangaphambi kwetyala, nabagwebi abajongele ukuwa kwetyala, abajongela ukubhaliswa kwetyala. Izigqibo zesithili zinokubhenela kwinkundla yesiphatho esifanelekileyo.

Iinkundla Zezibheno ZaseUnited States: Umgangatho Wezicelo

IiNkundla ezili-13 zezibheno zase-U.S. (ekwabizwa ngokuba ziinkundla zesiphaluka) zihlola izigqibo ezenziwa ziinkundla zesithili kwiziphaluka zazo. Ngokungafaniyo neenkundla zesithili, iinkundla zetyala, iinkundla zetyala aliqhubeli matyala okanye live ubungqina obutsha. Endaweni yoko, ziyavavanya ukuba umthetho wasetyenziswa ngokuchanekileyo kwiinkundla ezisezantsi. Iinkundla zesiphaluka ziviwa liqela labagwebi abathathu, nangona kwiimeko ezinqabileyo inkundla epheleleyo inokuva ityala eliva ukuva ukuva ukuva okubhaliweyo kwenkundla yokuchotshelwa kwetyala, zifunde iingxelo ezibhalwe ngamacala omabini, zize ziphulaphule iimpikiswano zomlomo. Ziye zinikeze uluvo olubhaliweyo lokuba luvume, lubuye, okanye luphinde lusiphendule isigqibo senkundla yesithili.

Abagwebi besiphaluka benza indima ebalulekileyo ekuphuhliseni imizekelo engokwasemthethweni. Izigqibo zabo zibophelele kuzo zonke iinkundla zesithili ezingaphakathi kwesiphaluka yaye banegunya elingxengxezayo kwezinye iziphaluka. Oku kudala iqumrhu letyala elikhokela iinkundla ezisezantsi kwaye linceda ukuqinisekisa ukuhambelana ekusetyenzisweni komthetho wesizwe. Abagwebi besiphaluka bakwava izibongozo ezivela kumaqumrhu athile olawulo, njengeSecturalities and Exchange Commission kunye neNational Labor Relationstion Board. I-United States yahlulahlulwa ngokweziqengqele eziyi-11 ezinamba, kuquka iD.C.

INkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States

INkundla ePhakamileyo yeyona nkundla iphakamileyo kweli lizwe, iqulethwe ngabagwebi abasithoba: iJaji enye kunye nezigwebi ezisibhozo ezinxulumeneyo. INkundla inegunya elipheleleyo kuwo onke amatyala orhulumente naworhulumente abandakanya ukudityaniswa kombuzo wesizwe, kuquka ukucaciswa komGaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho wesizwe. Ikwanegunya lokuqala kumatyala alinganiselweyo, afana neembambano phakathi kwamazwe. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ikhetha ukuba ngawaphi amatyala ngokunika ityala etyala le-cretariri, elifuna isivumelwano esimalunga nemithetho emine ("umthetho wesine"). Unyaka ngamnye, iNkundla ifumana amawaka ezicelo kodwa iyaphulaphula kuphela amatyala angama-70-80.

Izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zigqibele kwaye zibophelele kuzo zonke iinkundla ezisezantsi. Isigwebo sayo sinokuba nemiphumo engqukuva kwibutho labantu baseMerika, sitshintsha imilinganiselo yomthetho, sikhusela amalungelo abantu, kwaye silungisa iinkqubo zikawonke-wonke. IJaji Enkulu iyongamela iingxoxo zomlomo neengqungquthela zangasese kwaye inembopheleleko yokwabelana ngokubhalwa kweembono ezininzi xa iseluntwini. Nkundla nganye isebenzisa igunya lokuvota elilinganayo. Inkundla isebenza kwibinzana eliqala ngo-Oktobha okanye ngoJulayi, iphela ngoJuni okanye ngoJulayi, ideli, ngokukhutshwa kweembono. Inkundla Ephakamileyo eWashington, D.C., isebenza njengomqondiso obonakalayo wesebe elilawulayo.

Iindima Ezahlukileyo ZaBagwebi Abamanyeneyo Nabagwebi Abagwebi

Ngeli xesha "umgwebi" kunye "ukugweba" kusoloko kusetyenziswa ngendlela enye kwincoko nje, zichaza iindawo ezithile kwijaji yesizwe eneembopheleleko, ukumiselwa, kunye nobungakanani begunya. Ukuqonda ezi ntlobo zinceda kucacise indlela inkqubo yokugweba esebenza ngayo kumgangatho ngamnye.

ABagwebi Abamanyeneyo: Imisebenzi, Ukhetho, Nendawo Ephakamileyo

IGama "umgwebi ophetheyo" libhekisela ngokuqhelekileyo kwiQumrhu III labagwebi abatyunjwe kwiinkundla zesithili nakwienkundla zezibheno, kwakunye nabagwebi kwiinkundla ezikhethekileyo njengeNkundla yeNkundla yoThambelwano lwezizwe kunye neNkundla yeMazwe. IGatya III lisebenza ngexesha "lokuziphatha okuhle," intsingiselo yabo yokuba baphile, kwaye imivuzo yabo ayinakuncitshiswa xa beseofisini. Olu khuselo lujoliswe ukuba bakhusele kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika nokuqinisekisa ukuzimela kwemithetho.

Abagwebi besithili bongamela amatyala, balawula ii-dokisi zabo, balawula abamangalelwa, kunye nesigwebo kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho. Abagwebi besiphaluka bahlola amatyala akwisibheno, babhale izimvo, bawamise ngokuwamisela ngokusemthethweni amacandelo. Bobabini abagwebi besithili kunye nesiphaluka bakwasingatha izicelo zongxamiseko, ezifana nezicelo zokuhlala bebulawa okanye imiqathango, ngokufuthi ngesiseko esijikelezayo. Ukongeza kwiQumrhu III, kukho abagwebi abaphumezi betyala nabagwebi abasebenza ngokweemeko ezizinzileyo nabamiselwe ngamabhunga eenkundla okanye iinkundla zesithili.

Amatyala AseNkundleni Ephakamileyo: Iimbopheleleko Ezikhethekileyo

Amatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo akwangamaJaji eQumrhu III, kodwa indima yawo yahlukile kumsebenzi wombini nakwimpembelelo. Ngoxa abagwebi benkundla esezantsi besebenzisa umthetho okhoyo kwiimeko zomntu ngamnye, abagwebi basoloko bezama ukumelana nemibuzo esisiseko engokomGaqo-siseko enokuwaguqula ngokutsha amalungelo asemthethweni ohlanga lonke. Imbopheleleko yabo eyintloko kukuchaza umGaqo-siseko, ukuqinisekisa ukuba imithetho nezenzo zolawulo ezivumelana namalungiselelo awo. Abagwebi bacelwa ukuba bacombulule imicimbi ekhuphiswano efana namandla orhulumente, inkululeko yomntu ngamnye, nemidaba phakathi kwamasebe karhulumente.

IJaji nganye ibhala izimvo kumatyala amiselwe nguMgwebi oMkhulu (okanye umxhasi omkhulu kuninzi ukuba iJaji ePhakamileyo iyaphikisana). Ukuququzelela nokungavumelani kweembono kukwadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekulungiseni intetho esemthethweni kwaye maxa wambi kubekwe isiseko seenguqu zexesha elizayo kumthetho. IiJaji zikwajonge imisebenzi yangaphakathi yeNkundla, zigqibele ukuba ngawaphi amatyala eza kuwaphulaphula, zize zenze umngeni wokuphuma elubala kunye nemfundo. Ukumiswa kobulungisa kubomi bazo kuyazivumela ukuba zithathe imbono ende yomthetho, ekhutshwe yimijikelo yokhetho.

Ukuthelekiswa: Abagwebi baphikisana neJaji

Umahluko ongundoqo phakathi "komgwebo" no"kubulungisa" kwinkqubo yesizwe ungomnye wesikhundla kunye negunya. "Ubulungisa" bugcinelwe amalungu eNkundla ePhakamileyo, lo gama "umgwebo" usebenza kuzo zonke ezinye iiJaji zeQumrhu III. Kwamanye amazwe, inkundla ephakamileyo ikwabizwa ngokuba yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kunye namalungu ayo angoobulungisa, kodwa kwinkqubo karhulumente kuphela abasithoba kwi-U.S. iNkundla ePhakamileyo igcine eso sikhundla. Iimbopheleleko zabagwebi zibanzi zibanzi zibanzi ngenxa yokuba zimisela imizekelo kulo lonke uhlanga, kanti abagwebi besiphaluka bamisela imizekelo kuphela kwisiphaluka sabo.

Inkqubo Yokutyunjwa Nenkululeko Yogwebo

Inkqubo yokukhetha abagwebi nabagwebi besizwe iyinxalenye ebalulekileyo yenkqubo yokuhlola kunye nokulinganisela. Ibandakanya amasebe aphetheyo kunye nowiso-mthetho, ebonisa injongo yamaFramers ukuqinisekisa ijaji ezimeleyo kodwa efuna ukuphendula. Indlela eya kwibhedi ingqongqo kwaye isoloko ibekwa ityala ngokwezobupolitika, ingakumbi kwimiba yeNkundla Ephakamileyo.

Ubeko lwephepha

UMongameli umisa abagwebi bazo zonke ii-Akhawunti III, kuquka abagwebi benkundla yesithili, abagwebi besiphaluka, nabagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo. Isigqibo sokuchongwa sithunyelwa kwiKomiti yeNdlu yeQela, ethethayo ize ivoti ukuba ingamncomela na umtyunjwa kwiBhunga elipheleleyo. Uvoti oluqhelekileyo kwiBhunga leNtlalo yeSizwe iqinisekisa ukuba inyanisile i-amnee. Iimfektha engoPhondo ePhakamileyo, inkqubo itsala ingqalelo enzulu yesizwe, ngokuva nokuphikisana okubanzi. I-American Bar Association (ABA) inikela ukuvavanywa okungeyo kwe-ontathe-nxaxheba kwiNtlanga, nangona indima yayo ithe kratya kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Ukuqwalasela kwayo imbono yezopolitiko, njengenkqubo yomthetho, njengeyobulumko yangaphambili, kunye nokulawula i-Prosophysethistiki, isoloko ukungqinela ingqinela i-e.

Ubomi Nendlela Ophila Ngayo

Inqaku III lomGaqo-siseko linika abagwebi nabagwebi bomGaqo-siseko ulawulo lwezomthetho ngexesha "lokuziphatha okuhle". Eli lungiselelo lenzelwe ukukhusela abagwebi kwimpindezelo yezobupolitika nokuvumela abagwebi ukuba benze izigqibo ezisekelwe kumthetho nezibakala, ngaphandle koloyiko lokuphulukana nemisebenzi yabo. UAlexander Hamilton waphikisa kwi uNombololo-ok [ii-FLT] [iinterst] [iiicerist] ukuba ubomi babuyimfuneko kwijajinganiso yejaji ezimeleyo enokuthi ikwazi ukutolika umthetho ngokufanelekileyo nokusebenza njengamasebe omthetho kunye nolawulo oluphezulu. Ngoxa ubomi beshumi likhuthaza ukuzimela, kwakhona kuthetha ukuba kubekho ukungabi nako ukugwetyelwa kwetyala kwaye kunokuthi ibe neziphumo ezihlala ixesha elide kulungele ulungeleniso lwee lwee ntlu.

Ukungakhathalelwa Nokushenxiswa

Nangona abagwebi nabagwebi besizwe benobume bobomi babo bonke, abathintelwanga ekususweni. UmGaqo-siseko uvumela ukuba iNdlu yabameli ivume ukususwa yiNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNdlu yeeNdlu zeSithili "ngengqiqo, ukunyotywa, okanye ezinye izenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho eziphezulu kunye nokunganyaniseki". Ukubhaliswa kunqabile kakhulu; kuphela abagwebi abali-15 bezwelonke abagwetyiweyo yaye abasibhozo bagwetyelwe. Owona mzekelo wakutshanje wawukukususwa koMgwebi weSithi seG. Thomas Portitty Jr. Ngo-2010 isisongelo sokunganyanisi sisebenza njengovavanyo kwihambo engafanelekanga yokugweba, nangona kucetyo ekufuneka kusetyenziswe ukuze kulondolo lwezomthetho.

Ukubukezwa Kwezogwebo Namatyala Ophawu

Esinye sezixhobo ezinamandla kwicandelo lejaji, samiselwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwityala lesazinge uhlolo lweziko-mthetho .

Marbury v. Madison kunye neGunya leNkqutyana yezeeJaji

kuMarbury v. Madison, uMastier Justice John Marshall wabhala uluvo olungomnye olwamisela igunya leNkundla lokuphelisa izenzo zeBhunga elichasene nomGaqo-siseko. Ityala lavela kwimpikiswano yezopolitiko ngokumiselwa kobulungisa boxolo. Marshall walawula ukuba xa uWilliam Marbury wayenelungelo lomsebenzi wakhe, iNkundla ayinakukhupha umba womthetho we-mandamus ngenxa yokuba umthetho onika igunya (iSidlo se 13 soMthetho we-Judiciary ka-1789) ungabinaso. Esi sigqibo saphakamisa i-judiary njengesebe lorhulumente elingunogalelo-mthetho.

Amanye Amatyala Ayintloko Aguqula Uhlanga

Izibuko leNkundla ePhakamileyo liquka amatyala aphendula imibuzo esisiseko yamalungelo abantu, amandla karhulumente, kunye nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Ezinye zezigqibo ezinempembelelo equka:

  • Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo (1954) – imithetho karhulumente ebhengeziweyo emisela izikolo zikawonke-wonke zabafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe abangengomthetho, ngokunempumelelo ibhukuqa "ukudibanisa kodwa zilingane" kunye nokuphuhlisa umbutho wamalungelo abantu.
  • Roe v. Ukuvuleka [1903]) – wamkela ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuqhomfa, ebangela iingxoxo eziqhubekayo ezingokwasemthethweni nezezobupolitika nxamnye namalungelo okuzala.
  • [[NTL:0] Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) – Iqiniselwe ukuba umGaqo-siseko uqinisekisa izibini ezilinganayo ezinelungelo lokutshata, ukwandisa ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho.
  • [[NTL:0] McCulloch v. Maryland (11819) – Iqinisekisiwe ubungangamsha borhulumente phezu kwemithetho yesizwe kwaye ixhase ubugqeba beBhanki yesibini yaseUnited States, imisela amandla athelekelelwayo eengqikelelo kwiBhunga loMbutho.
  • [[NTLA:0] Miranda v. Arizona (66) – unyanzelo olufunekayo lomthetho ukwazisa abakrokrelekileyo ngamalungelo abo ("Isilumkiso seMiranda") phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya, ukomeleza ukhuseleko loMthetho wesihlanu wokuLayishwa.

La matyala abonisa ukukwazi kweNkundla ukutshintsha utoliko lomgaqo-siseko luguqule imilinganiselo yentlalo, ngoxa ekwabonisa ifuthe elihlala lihleli lezigwebo kubomi bemihla ngemihla.

Indlela Awafikelela Ngayo Amatyala ENkundla Ephakamileyo

INkundla ePhakamileyo ifumana izibongozo ezingaphezu kwama-7 000 kwigama ngalinye kodwa inika uhlolo malunga ne-1% yamatyala. Le nkqubo iqala xa iqela lifaka isicelo kwiNkundla ukuba lilive ityala layo. Abagwebi ngabanye bahlola izibongozo zabo baze baxubushe ngazo kwinkomfa yangasese. Abagwebi abane kufuneka bavote ukunikeza isicelo sesibeleko (ukubekwa kwetyala lesine) phambi kokuba ityala licwangciselwe impikiswano edluliselwa ngomlomo. Inkundla ibonelela ukuphindaphindwa xa kukho ukwahlulwa kweenkundla zesiphaluka kwimbambano ebalulekileyo esemthethweni, xa umthetho karhulumente uvakalisiwe ukuba awuhambisaniswanga. okanye xa ityala linikela umbuzo obalulekileyo. Emva kokuba impikiswano yomlomo kunye nokucazulula ityala okubhaliweyo ngaphakathi, iimbono zezomthetho ezibhaliweyo ezibhalwe ngomthetho ezivumelana nemithetho.

Impembelelo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo kuMbutho naseMfundoni

Ijaji yenkundla yesizwe, ingakumbi iNkundla Ephakamileyo, inempembelelo enzulu kwibutho lamaMerika. Isigqibo sayo sichaphazela yonke into kusukela kumalungelo abantu, imithetho yokuvota ukuya kumgaqo wezoqoqosho nomthetho wezaphuli-mthetho. Kubafundi nabafundisi-lwazi, beqonda indlela iNkundla esebenza ngayo nendlela izigqibo zayo ezinokwenziwa ngayo ziyimfuneko ukuze abe ngummi okhutheleyo.

Ukuphelisa Amalungelo Asekuhlaleni Nokukhulula

INkundla ePhakamileyo ibisembindini weenguqu ezininzi zentlalo ezibalulekileyo. Ngamatyala anjenge Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo, Gedeon v. Inkundla ikwandisa ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko kwaye inceda okungekho sikweni. Kwanaxa iNkundla yahlula, kuthwala amandla omthetho nokuthobela onke amasebe karhulumente.

Ubandakanyeko Olukhuthazayo Lwemibimbi

Kubafundi, ukufunda ngenkqubo yenkundla yesizwe kungaphezulu kunokufunda nje ukuqhuba isikolo, kusisiseko sokuqonda indlela amalungelo abo akhuselwa ngayo nendlela abanokuba nenxaxheba ngayo kwidemokhrasi. Ngokufunda amatyala abonisa imbali, ngokuhlalutya ukuqiqa, nangokulandela izigqibo zeNkundla yangoku, abafundi bahlakulela ubuchule bokucinga obubalulekileyo noxabiso olunzulu ngomthetho. (okanye kunika ityala ukucaciswa nokuvakala kwengxoxo), kunye nesethi [FLT] i-ebronarictary kwiphepha lemfundo lenkundla yezemfundo [[FLT:], , [[FT:]], [FYM]] Oyez.org kunye nezibonelelo eziluncedo zezibonelelo zolawulo zomthetho ezizezolwazi oluthe kratiweyo.

Isiphelo

Inkqubo yenkundla yephondo, kunye nesakhiwo sayo esineenkundla eziziintloko ezintathu, iinkundla zezibheno, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo, inikela isiseko esiqinileyo sokutolika imithetho nokuqinisekisa okusesikweni. Abagwebi nabagwebi abasebenza kwezi nkonto banembopheleleko enkulu: kufuneka basebenzise umthetho ngokungakhethiyo, bakhusele amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, baze balungelelanise iimfuno ezikhuphisanayo zegunya likarhulumente nelorhulumente. Ukuqonda iindima ezahlukileyo zabagwebi besithili nezomjikelo eziphakamileyo kunye nenkqubo yokumiselwa kwenkundla, kwanamandla okugweba, kunye nokuhlola okugweba kuyimfuneko kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela inkqubo esemthethweni yaseMerika esebenza ngayo.

Kubafundi nabafundisi, olu lwazi alukokufundiswa nje kuphela, lukhuthaza uxabiso olunzulu ngomthetho nokubaluleka kwejaji ezimeleyo. Ngokufunda iinkundla zesizwe, amatyala emiqondiso, nomsebenzi wemihla ngemihla wabagwebi nabagwebi, sizixhobisa ukuba sibe ngabemi abanolwazi olungakumbi, sikwazi ngakumbi ukuba nenxaxheba kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi nokukhusela imigaqo yokusesikweni nokulingana okusekelwe kumGaqo-siseko. Urhulumente wephondo uhlala engunogadari obalulekileyo kulungelelwaniso olusemthethweni lwesizwe, kwaye indima yakhe kwibutho labantu baseMerika liya kuqhubeka livakalelwa kwizizukulwana ezizayo.