Isiseko somGaqo-siseko samalungelo kaRhulumente

Ingcamango yamalungelo karhulumente .esoloko ibizwa ngokuba ngamalungelo karhulumente ``amalungelo karhulumente''''. Ngokungafaniyo nenkqubo yeyunithi apho onke amandla enyuka esuka kwigunya elisembindini, umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. uyahlula-hlula ulawulo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe norhulumente. Olu lwahlulo aluyiyo ngengozi; yayikukulalanisa ngamabom phakathi kwabo bafuna urhulumente onamandla onamandla nabo babesoyika ukuba uza kulucinezela ulawulo lwasekuhlaleni. Ukuqonda oko kukuthi amandla abambelele ngako, kwaye indlela amele anyanzeleke ngayo asetyenziswe ngayo.

Amalungelo karhulumente akangowokuphinda ulawuleka nje kuphela osele emva kokuba igunya likarhulumente lichaziwe. Amela inxalenye eyahlukileyo yokulawula eye yavela ngokusekelwe kumbhalo wezomGaqo-siseko, izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, iimbambano zezobupolitika, kunye nenkqubo yemihla ngemihla. Ukusukela kwimfundo yoluntu ukuya kumthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, ukusuka kwimiqathango yobugcisa ukuya kwimimiselo yomtshato, kugunya lemiqathango echaphazela ngokuthe ngqo ubomi bemihla ngemihla babemi bawo. Ukanti imida yelo elo gunya iyaqhubeka ikhuphisana, kwaye ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente kunye namandla orhulumente luye lwatshintsha ngokuphawulekayo ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini.

UMthetho Weshumi Ohlaziyiweyo Namandla Agciniweyo

Ilungiselelo elibalulekileyo lomgaqo-siseko lamalungelo karhulumente liSindululo seSihlalo seshumi, esagunyaziswa ngowe-1791 njengenxalenye yeBhili yamaLungelo. Sifundeka ngolu hlobo: “Amagunya angazange anikwe iUnited States ngumGaqo-siseko, okanye angavunyelwanga nguwo eUnited States, agcinelwe i-United States ngokulandelelana, okanye abantu.” Xa ukhathaze kuqala, olu lwimi lubonakala lucacile: urhulumente wesizwe kuphela unawo loo mandla anikwe nguMgaqo-siseko, kwaye yonke enye into ingowamazwe okanye abantu. Enyanisweni, i-ayise i-antlude intlukwano engapheli ngenxa yokuba umgangatho “wongalawuleki” usuka kude kumgangatho wokuziphakamisa.

Ayintoni Amandla Agciniweyo?

Amagunya agciniweyo yilawo umGaqo-siseko ongawaniki urhulumente wesizwe yaye angaphikiyo kumarhulumente. Aquka uninzi lwemisebenzi karhulumente wemini-mini: ukuseka oorhulumente basekuhlaleni, ukuqhuba unyulo, ukulawula urhwebo kwimida karhulumente, ukugcina impilo nokhuseleko lwasekuhlaleni, kunye nokusebenzisa umthetho wentsapho, umthetho wempahla, kunye nomthetho wesivumelwano. INkundla ePhakamileyo iqinisekisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ukuba uMphetho-Mgaqo-siseko weshumi uquka umgaqo karhulumente worhulumente olawulayo olinganiselweyo, kodwa kwakhona ibambelele kwelokuba ukupheliswa akuyile siphelo solawulo kumandla orhulumente orhulumente olawulayo, kwaye ithetha ukuba umthetho wesizwe awuwuniki mithetho yemithetho: onke amandla anganikwanga mazwe abekwe eUnited States.

[[FLT: 0] Ingongoma engundoqo yeSindululo seSimendo seNqalo Kwi [[FLT:] kwi-United States' v. Darby [41], iNkundla yachaza ukuba uLawulo lweshumi leSindululo “luyimimiselo kodwa isiqinisekiso sokuba konke okungakhange kunikezelwe.” Kodwa [ku-[FLT:] ku-New York v. United States [[FLT]] [[FLT:]] [[FLT]] uPrompz. United [FLT:] v [FLT:] [1997]], iNkuvo yeNkusebenza ukubetha umthetho wolawulo olukhoyo okanye ulawulo lwe-gronawongameli.[FLT]

Imfundiso yamagunya angenawo athetha ukuba anokuthi azame iinkqubo ezahluke kakhulu komnye. Ezi ntlobo-ntlobo zisoloko zichazwa njenge “emisebenzi yedemokhrasi,” ibinzana elidume ngeJaji uLouis Brandeis. Amazwe angazama iindlela ezintsha zokuxhasa imfundo, ukunikezelwa kwempilo, utshintsho lomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho, okanye umgaqo wemeko-bume ngaphandle kokufuna ukuvumelana kwesizwe. Ukuba uvavanyo lukarhulumente luphumelele, amanye amazwe ``nawo norhulumente) kwaye amkele imigaqo efanayo. Ukuba ayasilela, iindleko ziqulathwe kulo rhulumente.

Amandla Asemagunyeni: Oko Urhulumente Wesizwe Anokukwenza

Ukuwaqonda ngokupheleleyo amalungelo karhulumente, kuyimfuneko ukuqonda oko urhulumente wesizwe anokukwenza. UmGaqo-siseko unika iBhunga uluhlu olulinganiselweyo lwamagunya adweliswe kwiCandelo I, iCandelo 8: ukuboleka irhafu, ukuboleka imali, ukulawula urhwebo oluphakathi kwelizwe nakwamanye amazwe, ukumisela ii-ofisi zeposi neenkundla, ukusungula imfazwe, ukuphakamisa nokuxhasa imikhosi, nokwenza yonke imithetho ibe “eyimfuneko nefanelekileyo” yokuphumeza loo magunya. Kwimbali emininzi yaseMelika, olu luhlu lwachazwa kancinci, kushiya oorhulumente bemicimbi yamakhaya amaninzi.

Noko ke, iNew Deal yazisa ulwandiso oluphawulekayo lwegunya likarhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaqalisa ukutolika iCommerce Claus ngokubanzi, ivumela ukuba ilawule phantse nawuphi na umsebenzi wezoqoqosho ochaphazela ushishino lwamazwe ahlukeneyo. Olu lwando lwenza urhulumente wesizwe wanika isandla kwimimandla eshiywe ngokwesithethe, njengemigangatho yemisebenzi, yezolimo, namalungelo abantu. Kutshanje, iNkuNkundla ibeke imida kumandla karhulumente, njengakumthetho ongenanto enxulumene nezoqoqosho.

Amandla ahambelanayo: Apho uRhulumente neGunya loMbutho liBanzi

Asingawo onke amagunya azimeleyo okanye angomagunya ohlukeneyo. Aninzi akhoyo, athetha omabini amanqanaba karhulumente anokusebenza kummandla omnye. Umzekelo, omabini amagunya norhulumente wesizwe angayihlawula irhafu, akwakhela, alawule, anyanzelise imigangatho yemeko- bugqeba. Xa urhulumente kunye nemithetho ye-orhulumente ingquzula u-Supremacy Claus (Artle VI, Clausle 2) imisela ukuba umthetho wolawulo lwamaqulun esebenze ngaphakathi kwegunya lawo elingumgaqo-siseko. Lo mgaqo we- umgaqo we-ocleast ukhuthule umgaqo wemeko-bume.

Iintlobo Zokucinywa

  • Ukucinezelwa: Congress ichaza ngokucacileyo ukuba umthetho karhulumente uwisela umthetho kummandla othile. Umzekelo, uMqeshi Womqeshwa I-Infoifice Security Act (ERISA) uyicime ngokuphandle imithetho karhulumente ephathelele iinjongo zoncedo lomqeshwa.
  • Isetyenziswa: ngaphandle kolwimi olucacileyo, umthetho wengingqi wesizwe ungakhulula umthetho worhulumente ukuba ezi zombini zisemphikiswaneni ongadityaniyo okanye ukuba ucwangciso lolawulo lwesizwe lubanzi kangangokuba alushiyi gumbi lolwandiso-zwe. Oku kudla ngokubizwa ngokuba “kukukhulula ibala.”
  • Intethelelo epheleleyo: Umthetho worhulumente uyakhululwa ukuba wenza kube nzima ukuthobela zombini iimfuno zorhulumente nezorhulumente, okanye ukuba ume njengomqobo kwiinjongo ezipheleleyo neenjongo zeBhunga.

Kwakhona irejista yamagunya ahambelanayo kwimimandla efana nezolwaphulo-mthetho. Uninzi lolwaphulo-mthetho lulwaphulo-mthetho lukarhulumente; umthetho worhulumente ugquma kuphela ulwaphulo-mthetho oluphakathi okanye olusemthethweni karhulumente. Kodwa ulawulo olugqithisileyo luqhelekile .(umzekelo, isenzo esinye sokurhwetyelelwa kweziyobisi, sinokwaphula umthetho worhulumente nowesizwe, kwaye bobabini oorhulumente basenokugwetywa.

Amandla Amapolisa: Owona Mmandla Karhulumente Abanzi

Mhlawumbi owona mthombo ubalulekileyo wamandla karhulumente ngamandla e- amapolisa akhankanywe ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa agqalwa njengamandla agciniweyo. Ezo nkonzo zibhekiselele kwigunya elizalwayo lesizwe ukuba liqulunqa ingumthetho, lilawule impilo, ukhuseleko, ukuziphatha, kunye nentlalo-ntle yabantu balo. Amandla amapolisa awakhankanywanga ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kodwa aqashelwa njengegunya eligciniweyo. Amazwe awasebenzisa ukumisela imigaqo ekwakhela, imfuno yezamkelo, ifuna iilayisense, oogqirha namagqwetha, ukulawula ukuthengiswa kwe-alkhoholi, ukumisela imida yesantya, kunye nezinye izinto ezininzi.

Ngenxa yokuba amandla amapolisa ebanzi, iinkundla zinika inkululeko ebanzi yokuwasebenzisa qha qha, ngaphandle kokuba zaphula ii-odolom-siseko ezithile. Umzekelo, umthetho worhulumente ocalucalula urhwebo lwamazwe ahlukeneyo okanye ophula amalungelo asisiseko (njengokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo okanye ukuqhelisela unqulo) uza kujongwa njengoqwalaselo olungqongqo. Kodwa impilo yoluntu kunye namanyathelo okhuseleko aqhelekileyo asoloko equququzelelwa logama benezisekelo ezifanelekileyo.

Ngexesha lesifo se-COVID-19, amandla amapolisa ayephakathi kumadabi anzima asemthethweni. Abalawuli bezorhulumente kunye namasebe ezempilo bakhupha imiyalelo yokuzibophelela, izigunya, kunye neemfuno zokugoma phantsi kweli gunya. Ezininzi zezi zenzo zacelw'iimbambano zacelw'elwa enkundleni, zithetha ukuba zaphula amalungelo omgaqo-siseko okanye zagqithisa igunya lorhulumente. Ngokuqhelekileyo, iinkundla zaxhasa amanyathelo onyango kawonke wonke asemthethweni njengokusetyenziswa kwamandla amapolisa, nangona eminye imiqathango engqalileyo yancitshiswa xa behlasela amaqela athile ngaphandle kobulungisa obufanelekileyo.

UmGaqo-siseko weSizwe nendima yawo

Umbuso ngamnye unomgaqo-siseko wawo, osebenza njengomthetho ophakamileyo wezwe (ophantsi komthetho wesizwe). Umgaqo-siseko karhulumente usoloko unikela ukhuseleko olukhulu kumalungelo omntu ngamnye kunomGaqo-siseko we-U.S. umzekelo, umgaqo-siseko worhulumente omninzi uqinisekisa ilungelo lokuba yimfihlo ngokuphandle, kanti ilungelo lorhulumente lokuzimela liboniswa kwiinguquko ezininzi. Iinkundla zelizwe linokutolika amalungelo azo ukwandisa umgangatho ophezulu.

Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe ukwanobume borhulumente, ngokufuthi ngeendlela ezahluke kakhulu kumzekelo karhulumente. Amanye amaphondo anerhuluneli ebuthathaka nendlu yowiso-mthetho eyomeleleyo; amanye anegunya elisezininzi apho amagosa afana negqwetha jikelele nonobhala-rhulumente anyulwa ngokuzimeleyo. Amazwe amaninzi avumela idemokhrasi ngokuthe ngqo ngokuthabatha amanyathelo kunye namatyala, enika abavoti amandla okumisela imithetho okanye ukuguqula umGaqo-siseko ngaphandle kokungenelela kwemithetho-mthetho. Oku kuye kwaba nempembelelo ngokukhethekileyo kwiindawo ezifana nokubekwa komthetho-mthetho, inkqubo yerhafu, kunye nokuguqula ulwaphulo-mthetho.

Imida Kumandla Karhulumente

Phezu kwalo nje ububanzi begunya likarhulumente, kukho imida ebalulekileyo. UmGaqo-siseko uyithintela ngokucacileyo into yokwenza izinto ezithile: abanakungena kwizivumelwano, kwiingqekembe zemali, baphazamise imbopheleleko yezivumelwano, okanye ukurhwaphiliza irhafu okanye ukurhweba kwamanye amazwe. UMthetho wokuHlayishwa kweMpanzi weshumi elinesine, ogunyazisiweyo emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, uyalela ukuba kungahluthwa nawuphi na umntu wobomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho, kwaye ekukhanyeleni ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo kwemithetho. Oku kuye kwaba sisizathu solwaphulo-mthetho wamalungelo angenakubanziwawa kurhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni.

Eminye imida ivela kwimimiselo karhulumente. Ngokomzekelo, uMthendeleko wamaLungelo ka-1965 uthintela ukuphunyezwa kwezenzo zokuvota ezicalucalucalulwe ngokwezizizizinzi zohlanga. UMthetho wokuNcinaniso kufuneka urhulumente noorhulumente basekuhlaleni benze iinkqubo zabo zifikeleleke. INational Labor Relations Act ikhulula imithetho emininzi karhulumente elawula ukulungelelanisa nokuthelelana. Xa urhulumente wesizwe esebenzisa amagunya akhe, kufuneka athobele.

Ulawulo lukaDillon luphikisana nolawulo lwasekhaya

Umlinganiselo owahlukileyo uchaphazela oorhulumente basekuhlaleni (iingingqi, izikolo, iidolophu). Ngaphantsi Umthetho we-Dillon , oorhulumente basekuhlaleni bazizidalwa zikarhulumente kwaye banawo kuphela loo magunya agunyaziswa ngokucacileyo yindlu yowiso-mthetho. Oku kuthetha ukuba amadolobha akanakwenza nyathelo, qha kwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni kuphela. /nakwimicimbi yasekuhlaleni", ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uyigunyazile. Amanye amazwe aye amkela umthetho wekhaya [ kwimimiselo yawo okanye imimiselo eqesho egqithisiweyo, enika oorhulumente basekuhlaleni i-I66. Kodwa nakumazwe orhulumente orhulumente ohlala apho, uxanduvano lwemithetho-o-omthetho-odwa. Uxanduvano lwamazwe asekuhlaleni lwezwe lasekuhlaleni lungavumela ulawulo oluphezulu nolwanomthetho-mthetho-mthetho- ngokomthetho- melo, inkcuntlulawulo olufana nolawulo oluncinane, oluhlawulwayo, kunye nolawulo lwemi.

Umanyano kwiNdlela yokuSebenza: IiNkcukacha

Impikiswano ngamalungelo karhulumente asiyonto yembali; ivela rhoqo kwezobupolitika zale mihla. Imibandela emininzi ephezulu ibonisa umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokuchaza ulungelelwano olufanelekileyo lwamandla.

Ukwenziwa kwemithetho yeMali

Ukususela ngo-2012, inani elikhulayo lamaphondo liye labhaliswa ngokwasemthethweni ukuze lisetyenziswe ngomsayini wezonyango okanye wokuzonwabisa, nto leyo ephikisana ngqo nomthetho karhulumente, ewubala umyasa njengesixhobo sokulawula iShedyuli. Urhulumente wengingqi akasafuni ukunyanzelisa umthetho ngokusemthethweni, kodwa uxinezeleko lusaqhubeka. Amashishini oRhulumente omya womchamo akanakuyisebenzisa inkqubo yobhanki karhulumente, kwaye abasebenzi kuloo mashishini basenokuthi bajongene netyala likarhulumente. Lo msebenzi ukhokelele ekufuneni utshintsho kurhulumente okanye ukuqhubeka nokusebenzisa igunya lawo lamapolisa ukumisela iziyobisi njengoko bebona kufanele.

Ukuqhomfa Namalungelo Okuzala

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yowama-2022 [222], sibuyisela ulawulo lokuqhomfa kakhulu kumazwe. Oku kuye kwavelisa ukwahlukana okuphawulekayo: amanye amazwe aphumele kufutshane nolulonke, ngoxa amanye edlulise imithetho ekhusela ukufikelela. Isiphumo sisikhululo esingalinganiyo apho umfazi ekwaziyo ukuqhomfa kuxhomekeke apho ahlala khona. Amazwe amaninzi azama ukulawula ukuqhomfa ngaphandle kwemida, njengangokunqanda ukuhamba ngaphandle kwemiqathango. Imithetho engoogqeba ingu ingu.

Ukubonelela ngamalungelo nolawulo lokhetho

UMgaqo-siseko unika amandla okumisela “ixesha, iindawo kunye nendlela” yonyulo lobukhonya, phantsi kolawulo oluphambili. Amazwe asoloko ephethe unyulo, kodwa kwiminyaka yakutshanje aye abona ukwanda kwemithetho karhulumente etshintsha iinkqubo zokuvota kunye nokuvota kwasekuqaleni kwamanye amazwe, ukubeka imfuno zomvoti ngokungqongqo kunye nokubeka iibhokisi zokulahla kwezinye. Le mithetho iye yacelw'ucelw'udobo phantsi koMthetho wamaLungelo kunye nomGaqo-siseko, maxa wambi neenkundla zisohlwaye imiqathango yokqulo ebangela ukuba ulawulo oluncinane nolawulo olulinganayo. Uxinzelo oluphakathi kolawulo nolawulo lorhulumente nolawulo olulinganayo luhlala lungumba ophakathi.

Ulawulo lwemipu

IsiHlanzo sesibini, njengoko sitolikwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo i-Dialior of Columbia v. Helder [2008] kunye McDonald v. IsiXeko seChicago[, sikhusela ilungelo ngalinye lokugcina nokuphatha izixhobo. Kodwa amagunya angundoqo okulawula izibhamu: angafuna imvume, ukuvalwa kwezixhobo ezithile, ukunyanzelela amathuba okulinda, kwaye imiqathango yokuthwala iindawo ezibuthathaka. Imithetho karhulumente iyahluka kakhulu, ukusuka “kukuvumela ukuphatha ngokugqithisileyo kunye nokubhalisa. Imithetho efana nomthetho kaBrady Handmin Vulvelvel Previty kunye noMthetho we-Bipartic Actives, u-ActiveDenegation, kodwa i-202222, umgaqo othe kokugqibela.

Indima YeNkundla Ephakamileyo Ekuncomeleni Amalungelo Esizwe

INkundla ePhakamileyo yeyona iphambili kwiimpikiswano ngolwahlulo lwamandla. Kwiminyaka engamashumi angamashumi, imithetho yayo iye yanwetshwa ngokutshintsha-tshintsha yaza yafumana igunya lesizwe. Kulo nyaka wokuqala, iNkundla phantsi kweJaji eliPhakamileyo uJohn Marshall yomeleza amandla karhulumente ngendleko yamazwe ([] Mcloch. Maryland[FLT]] [[FLT]], [[FLT]]] Gebbons v. Ogn[FLT]] [[FLT]]]). Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, iNkuvumela ukuba kubekwe umgangatho obanzi phantsi kwamandla amapolisa kodwa kwanyanzelelwa ama Amerekali ukukhusela amalungelo abantu ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu [[FT] [FLG].[5] [5]

Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, iNkundla iRoberts ibonise umdla ovuselelekileyo wokukhusela ulawulo lukarhulumente. Inkundla iRehnquist ivuselele ukuququzelelwa kweNkundla karhulumente (1990 kunye nasekuqaleni kowama- 2000) yavelisa izigqibo eziliqela zokumisela igunya lorhulumente phantsi kwe-Commerce Clausce kunye neSinyusi se-Tenth. Inkundla kaRoberts iqhubele phambili lo mgaqo kwezinye iindawo (ngomzekelo, ukuba amagunya akanakubekwa phantsi kwemvume yawo phantsi kwemithetho elwa nocalucalulo-calulo lomthetho-mthetho worhulumente olwa nolwalu mbuso kwabanye, njengoMqathango womntu ngamnye weNkuLawulwa kweNkuhlalo lweNkulwa.

Isiphelo: Ulungelelwano Olunamandla

Amalungelo karhulumente akahlali ehla akhoyo. Asoloko ekhutshwa ngokubekwa kwemithetho, umthetho, kunye nezenzo zobupolitika. UHlaziyo lweshumi leSindululo lunika isiqalo, kodwa intsingiselo ecacileyo yamandla karhulumente ixhomekeke kwindlela iinkundla ezilichaza ngayo igunya lorhulumente, indlela iBhunga elisebenzisa ngayo igunya lalo elidwelisweyo, nendlela amagosa karhulumente asebenzisa ngayo igunya lawo. Ukuqonda le mpembelelo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela i-United States elawulwa ngayo .

[[UMTL] izibonelelo ze-Extel ukuze zifundwe ngokubhekele phaya:[[UMTL:1]