Amalungelo omGaqo-siseko akwinkqubo: Imizekelo yehlabathi lokwenene

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, unika isakhiwo sesiseko sikarhulumente worhulumente worhulumente ngexesha elinye ubeka imiqathango eqinileyo kumandla awo ngokhuseleko lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ukuqonda la malungelo angaqondakaliyo kufuna ukuba ahlolwe ukusebenza kwawo kwiimbambano zehlabathi lokwenene. Kungeemeko zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezibalaseleyo, ukuchasana kweembono, kunye nokusabela komthetho kokuba imigaqo ebanzi yeBhili yamaLungelo inikwe intsingiselo ecacileyo. Ukusuka kwindlu yesikolo ukuya kwi-scleam, imigaqo-siseko eqhutyekwanelwayo ngabaseki iyaqhubeka ibumba ubomi bommi bonke. Le nkhokelo ihlola iintsokozo ezingundoqo ziphenduku ngelensi, ihlola izigqibo ezizingqinela intsingiselo yemithetho echaza indawo yayo kwaye ichaphazela ibutho labantu baseMerika.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Iliwa Lokuthabatha Inxaxheba Kwidemokhrasi

IsiHlalisi sokuqala siqinisekisa inkululeko enxulumeneyo emihlanu: unqulo, intetho, ushicilelo, indibano, nelungelo lokucela urhulumente. La malungelo enzelwe ukukhuthaza intengiso yeengcamango ezivulekileyo nokukhusela isazela somntu kwingcinezelo karhulumente.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha Nentetho

Ingxelo ephambili kwintetho yabafundi ivela [FLT][1] .Des Moine Independent School Community v. Des Motting Community District [1] [19699]. NgoDisemba 1965, iqela labafundi eDes Moines, i-Iowa, kuquka uMary weminyaka eli-13 ubudala uMary Beth Tinker, wafaka iingalo ezimnyama kwisikolo ukuze avukele imfazwe yaseVietnam. Isikolo, isithilithi, ukoyika ukuphazamiseka, inkundla ephakamileyo yemfundo yalawula imvume yabafundi. Umthetho karhulumente wabhala uluvo olukhulu, u-Iokanye nookanye amaqela amaqela eencwadi alwayo alwayo ngaphandle kwemithetho-mthetho womthetho wesizwe, ukuyekelela ukumelana kwemidanganiso yabafundi kwimicimbi yabantwana yale mihla yanamhlanje.

Ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala ludlulele ngaphaya kweyadi yesikolo. . Johnson [1998], iNkundla yagqiba ukuba ukutshisa iflegi yaseMelika njengendlela yokuqhatha kwezobupolitika kukhuselwe intetho yomfuziselo. Oku kubangele ingxoxo yesizwe kunye nokuzama umva kwemithetho-siseko. Kutshanje, isizukulwana samanani sivule amacandelo amatsha okuthetha. [5] PGLT]. UMntla [FLT] [FL:] [5] [25:] [20], iNkulophulo- mthetho wemithetho yesiseko somthetho-siseko sesiseko sesiseko sesiseko se-siseko se-siseko se-siseko se-yomgalelo-yonke] [RC] [iceat]

Inkululeko Yonqulo

Ukumiswa kwe-Claus noMsebenzi we-Free Execs Claus) (1962), iNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba umthandazo obhalwe ngomlomo kawonke-wonke okhuselwe kwizikolo zonqulo. [FLT]] Engel v. Umthetho weNkundla wagqiba ukuba umthandazo obhalwe ngomlomo wasekuhlaleni waphula umthetho u-Claus, nangona umthandazo wawungeyoyamatshaza nongayolungu. ISikolo sobugqeba uHugo Black sathi "ayiyo inxalenye yeshishini likarhulumente lokuqulungela naliphi na iqela labantu baseMelika ukuphindaphinda. Oku kwaqinisekiswa kumthetho [[FLD:] [FLT] [5] [5] [5] iSikolo esikhululekileyokusetyenziswa kwemidlalo yemidlalo yezehlokosi.[Ft] [2] [2] [2] [2]

Funda i Pinker epheleleyo v. Des Moines isigqibo kwi Oyez

UMthetho Wesibini Ohlaziyiweyo: Umntu ngamnye unelungelo ngokuchasene nokhuseleko Loluntu

Kwinkoliso yenkulungwane yama-20, uHlaziyo lwesibini lwafumana uhlolo olulinganiselweyo lweNkundla ePhakamileyo. INkundla ngokwembali yadibanisa ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo nenkonzo kumkhosi olawulwa kakuhle, njengoko kubonwa ku [FLT]]. United States v. Miller[FLT] [12] [193]].

IHeller Nemvukelo Ehlaziyiweyo

I-Diality of Columbia v. Helter[FLT] [2008] [2008], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ithetha ukuba iSiphengululo sesibini sikhusela umntu ukuba abe nesixhobo sokuzirhweba ngekhompyutha, engadityaniswanga nenkonzo yemikhosi. Kwisigqibo esiphakanyiswa nguMphathiswa nguAnton Scilia, iNkundla iphendule ngoewe, irhaba phantsi kweWashington D.C.[5] uviko lwesandla. Inkundla ibambe ukuba ukuzibeka kwesiqu se-empempe-fa" yilungu lenqanawa esekunene. Kwiminyaka emibini kamva, [FLD] [FLD] phantsi komthetho oqhelekileyo wolawulo lweziko lombane.[5][5]

Umgangatho Onzima Nemiphumo Yawo

Inkqubela ephawulekayo kwiSibini soMphetho-Mphetho-mva-mva wesibini yafika [FLT]]. Iphondo lase-New York iRifle & Pistol Association v. UBruen.. INkundla yagalela "isizathu esifanelekileyo" sokuphatha umlo wesandla esifihlakeleyo kuwonke-wonke. IJajimas Thomas yamisela uvavanyo olutsha: imithetho yemipu yangoku kufuneka ibe "iqukumbele nesithethe soMkhosi woMhlanga wesithobo." Le ngxelo, imbali, imbali isoloko isetyenziswa ziintsongatho zenkundla ezisezantsi zemipu, kuquka ukuvalwa kwemipu eninzi ngenxa yokuba abantu abalawulwa yimipu. [FT][4]

Funda isigqibo se Bruen (PDF) kwiwebhsayithi yeNkundla ePhakamileyo

Uhlaziyo Lwesine: Ukuzifica Kwixesha Lobugcisa

UHlomelo lwesine lukhusela "ilungelo labantu lokunqabiseka kubantu babo, kwizindlu, kumaphepha, nakwiziphumo, ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nokuxhuzula." Oko kukuthi "ukungaqiqi" kuguquke ngokuphawulekayo njengoko ubugcisa butshintshile.

Ukulindela Okusengqiqweni Kwento Engandincedayo

Uvavanyo lwangoku lwesiseko soMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo wesine wamiselwa kwi . Inkundla yarhoxa kwi-Kattz v. United States [1967]. UCharles Katz wagwetywa ngokungcakaza okungekho mthethweni emva kokuba iFBI ifake isixhobo sokuphulaphula ngaphandle kwedokodolo likawonke-wonke. Inkundla yafumana ukuba isenzo sikarhulumente simise i "se-ephendla" phantsi kweSinyuso sesine. IJaji uJohn Harlan II yavumelana ngoku-fgrafik-mbili: umntu kufuneka abe "ululwe uvavanyo lwento efihlakeleyo" kwaye ulindele "ukufumana icebo elifanelekileyo" kwaye ulindele ukuba uluntu lulumkele olulungele ukubekwa endaweni yepropati ekhoyo..

Iifowuni zeseli nezogcino-lwazi lwamanani

Kwinkulungwane yama-21, iNkundla iye yazama ukusebenzisa uHlaziyo lwesine kulwazi lwamanani. [FLT]] .Riley v. California[2014, iNkundla igqibelele ukuba amapolisa afune isiqinisekiso sokuphendla iziphumo zeminxeba zeselfowuni ebambekileyo. IJaji enkulu uJohn Roberts ibhale ukuba icell ayingomnye wendlela yobugcisa eluncedo kuphela " kwaye umthamo omkhulu wogcino-lwazi lobuqu aqulathe umgangatho ophezulu wokhuseleko.

Iqonga eliphethwe ngumthwali wengcingo. Inkundla yaqonda ukuba abantu banolindelo olufanelekileyo lwemfihlo kwintshukumo yabo yonke, nokokuba ugcino-lwazi ludibene neqela lesithathu (inkampani yefowuni). Le "ingcamango ye-moac" yento eyimfihlo (CSLI) icebisa ukuba isithuthi sendlela-mfono, ugcino-lwazi olude lungatyhila iinkcukacha ezithe ngqo zobomi bomntu, ukukhuselwa kwe-Dinjini ye-4.

Funda okungakumbi malunga nemfihlo yamanani kwi-electronic Foundation (EFF) ye-website[[FL:1]

UHlaliso lweNtlalo-ntle yeNkcubeko yeNkcubeko

IsiHlanzi sesihlanu sinika intlanganisela yamalungelo agxekiweyo: ilungelo elichasene nokuzicenga, ukuqinisekisa inkqubo efanelekileyo, ukukhusela kwingozi ephindwe kabini, kunye nemfuneko yokufumana imbuyekezo yokuthatha impahla yabucala.

Ilungelo Lokuhlala Uthe cwaka

Inkalo edumileyo yoMphetho-Mdathiso weNtlanganiso wesihlanu isuka ku [FLT]] Mira v. Arizona [[FLT] [[6]]. (196]. Ernesto Miranda wabanjwa ngenxa yokuqweqwedisa nokudlwengula. Emva kweeyure ezimbini zokuncinwa, wasayina isindululo esibhaliweyo esiquka ukuvuma amalungelo akhe. Inkundla ephakamileyo yawaguqula amatyala akhe, ibambe ukuba ukuncinwa kwetyala kuyinto engaqhelekanga. IJajini enkulu u-Earl Warrenren ibekwe ngaphandle kwe-licicio "Marna ne-omsstion" imond, imele ichaze ukuba bahlala bebondyedwa, into enokuthi bayenze ngokuchasene nawo, ukuba banokusetyenziswa yigqweqwene, yaye imele ingabi nammeli enye. Ngexesha elisemva komthetho elilawulayo elilawulayo.[F.][4]

Inkqubo ePhakamileyo neSikhululo

ISicwangciso soMgqibeko sesihlanu u-Access Claus (nemxhasi wayo kuMphetho-mva weshumi elinesine) ayikhuseli nje kuphela okusesikweni kodwa kwakhona namalungelo angaphantsi. Imfundiso yeNdlela yokuLawula iMbetho ePhantsi isetyenzisiwe ukukhusela iinkululeko ezingundoqo ezingadweliswanga ngokucacileyo embhalweni. Nangona iphikisana kakhulu, yaba sisiseko samalungelo e-mfihlo [FLT]]GULC.Connectic[FLT]][195] [195]] [18] [18] kunye nelungelo elifanayo lomtshato owe-express:][FLT][5][5]

Ukuthatyathwa KukaClaus

IsiHlamlisi sesihlanu siqukunjelwa ngokuthatha u-Celas: "Kwaye impahla yabucala iya kuthatyathwa ukuze isetyenziswe nguwonke-wonke, ngaphandle kwembuyiselo." Eli binzana lifuna ukuba urhulumente ahlawule ixabiso lokuthengwa ngokufanelekileyo xa efumana impahla kwithambeka elibalulekileyo. Umlinganiselo "wokusetyenziswa kwabantu bonke" wachazwa ngokubanzi [[FLT][1] .KLO v. isixeko saseNew London[FLT][2005] [2005], apho iNkuvumele khona iNkundla isixeko ukuba ithathe impahla yabucala ukwenzela inkqubela yoqoqosho, ithetha ukuba inzuzo jikelele yezoqoqosho isetyenziswe nguwonke.

UMthetho Wesithandathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ilungelo Lokuvavanywa Kwetyala Elifanelekileyo

IsiHlamlisi Sesithandathu siqinisekisa ukuba iqumrhu lamalungelo alungiselelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba ityala lezaphuli - mthetho liza kuchotshelwa ngokusesikweni, kuquka ilungelo lokuchotshelwa ngokukhawuleza nangokuba likhulu, inkundla yabachopheli - tyala engakhethi buso, ukuze kuxelelwe amangqina, nokuze kucetyiswa.

Ilungelo Elibalulekileyo Lokululekwa

Ityala lembali elikhoyo apha . Gedeon v. Wainwright [[FLT] [1963]. UClarence Earl Gideon wayengumntu ongekho mgangathweni othenjiswe ityala lokuqhekeza kwindlu yeqela eFlorida. Akakwazi ukufikelela igqwetha, ucela inkundla ukuba imisele enye. Inkundla yelizwe yala umkhosi, kwaye uGidiyo wanyanzeleka ukuba akhusele kwaye wabekwa kwi-gqeba lakhe. Kwiseli yentolongo yakhe, wabhala isicelo esibhalwe ngesandla esiya kwiNkuqululo Ephakamileyo. Inkundla yathatha ityala yayalela icebo layalela ukuba izindululo zeSixweth sesombululo sibaluleke ekulingeni, yaye oko kuyimfuneko phantsi kwe-Genedemodeli ukuze kunikezelwe igqhinga.[F] [F] [5]

UNombolo Obejamelene Nawo

UHlaziyo lweSithandathu lukwaqinisekisa iNkundla yokuguqula okulungileyo "ukuza kujongwa nabakangqina. [FLT] [2004], iNkundla yawuguqula ngokuchanekileyo umthetho malunga namava kunye nobungqina. Ummangalelwa, uMichael Crawford, wamangalelwa ngokuhlasela nokuzama ukubulala. Ityala lazisa itepeyibhithi ebhalwe ngumfazi wakhe, Sylvia, owabona ulwaphulo-mthetho kodwa akazange angqinele ekulingweni (ukuphakamisa ilungelo lomtshato). Inkundla ephakamileyo yawisa umthetho wokuba uSylvia ucana. Inkundla yakubamba ingundathathiwe ukuba "ithreyi" ayinakuvunywa ngaphandle kokuba ingqina elikhoyo phambi kokuba ityala lobugqwenga.[Fod]

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

ISindululo seNkqutyana yesibhozo sikwalela ukusetyenziswa kwebheyile egqithisileyo, ukuhlawuliswa ngokugqithiseleyo, kunye "nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga" INkundla ePhakamileyo ibisoloko itolika ngokuchaza eli binzana ngokusebenzisa ileyibhile "imilinganiselo ecacileyo yesidima ephawula inkqubela phambili yebutho labantu abakhulayo.

Isigwebo Sokufa

UHlaliso lweziHluzi luye lwangundoqo kwingxoxo yesizwe ngesohlwayo sokufa. [FURN]man v. Georgia [19972], iNkundla yalawula kwisigqibo sokuba ukusetyenziswa ngokusemthethweni nokungaguquguquki kwesohlwayo sokufa, ingakumbi izithethe zayo zobuhlanga, kusirhoxise njengoko sisetyenziswa. Isigqibo sathi nyani siphelise konke ukubulawa eUnited States. [1972] kwiminyaka emine kamva, [[FLT:][FLT:] v [FLT]].[FLT][5],[5], [3] [5],[5], [3] iNkunikwa kweNkugwebo entsha imo ye-bom, [7]

Kusukela [[FLT: 0] [[FLT:] [2002], iNkundla ibeke imida emiselweyo kubani onokuthi ufezwe. Attins v. Virginia[[FLT:][2002] [2002], iNkundla yagqiba ukuba abantu abanobulwelwelwe bungqondo baphumeza iMphetho-Mphetho-ma. ].[FLT] v.[FLT:][5][FLT][2009], iNkundla oku, iphethe okokuba abantu abanobuncinane (enziwe ngexesha lolwaphulo-mthetho.[FLT]]]

Iimeko Zentolongo Neempahla Ezininzi Kakhulu

ISinyusi-Mpanzi seNkundla sesibhozo sikwasebenza kwiimeko zokuvalelwa nokuvunywa kwezoqoqosho. [FLT]-Timbs v. Indiana [2017], iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba iSendmentation Reconf Reconfs Claus isebenza kumazwe (ukuquluphala). Kulo mzekelo, urhulumente wase-Indianayi wayefuna ukuthatha iLizwe le-Rover SUV, elinoxabiso elingaphezulu kwama-$4 000, emva kokuba egwetywe ngokuthengisa imali encinane ye-heroin. Inkundla yabonisa ukuba ukulahlekelwa kwempahla eluncedo zemvelingezo zeziyobisi ezisekelwe kwiproport kunye ne-egastion.

UMthetho We - 14 WezoHlaziyo: Ikhaka Lenkululeko Nomgangatho

Isindululo: Akukho kuxutyushwa kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko okusebenzayo okupheleleyo ngaphandle koMphetho-weshumi elinesine, owagunyaziswa ngo1868. Ngelixesha iBhili yamaLungelo yayilunqumla urhulumente wezwe, uMphetho weshumi elinesine ngokusisiseko watshintsha esi sakhiwo. I-'Screate Procession Claus' ibisisisithutholo esiphambili se "ukulungisa" iBhili yamaLungelo nxamnye namagunya, kwaye uKhuselo lwayo olulinganayo luka-Claus ebesisiseko solona lulondo lwamalungelo aguqula abantu kwimbali yaseMelika.

Ityala: Ukwenza Amalungelo Asebenze EUnited States

Inkqubo yokuqukumbela yaqalisa kancinci. INkundla yokuqala yasebenzisa uGaqo-magama okuQala kokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo kumazwe [FLT]] . Oku kuthetha ukuba igosa lamapolisa eCalifornia okanye ibhodi yesikolo eTexas ibotshelelwe ngumgaqo-siseko omnye njengorhulumente worhulumente. Ukuququzelelwa koMphetho wesibini [FLT:] [4]. [FLD] .[FLD][FLT][5][5][20]

Ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo namalungelo asekuhlaleni

ISikhuseli esilinganayo sika-Claus we-14th Amendment iyalela ukuba akukho mbuso uya "kukhusela umntu ngamnye ngaphakathi kwegunya lakhe ukhuseleko olulinganayo lwemithetho". Eli binzana lalisisiXhobo esisemthethweni esisetyenziselwa ukuphelisa ukwahlukana kohlanga. [] Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo[FLT]] [1954] [1954], iNkuMbundla ePhakamileyo yamisela imithetho eyahlula amaziko kawonke wonke abafundi abamnyama nabamhlophe ngokugqibele, ibhukuqaqaqa i-"imfundiso elinganayo kodwa elungeleneyo".[FLT] V[FLD][FLD][FFD5] [96] [186]). Umthetho omkhulu u-Exptional Warrents (1866]) wabhala ukuba i-Greams "iesahlulomote "ieveriast" yemfundo yemfundo esezantsi" yemfundo e-"

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo lukaClaus lukwasisizinzi sezigqibo eziphawulayo zocalucalulo lweziqu ze-computer, njenge [FLT]] United States v. Virginia[FLT][3] [1966], eyabulala inkqubo yomntu wesigqeba se-grand se-Virginia Meendary Institute. Kunyaka wama-21, yayiyisiseko se-[FLT]] ofell v. Hodges[[FLT:][12][FLT:][11] [20], eyamkele umtshato owe-exddrestivelt, kunye [FT] kunye [12] neenkqubo ze-Genethiwe-Genethiwe-EPT] ezisetyenziswayokutsho udidi lwe-Genethi ye-Genethi ye-Genet]

Funda okungakumbi malunga nemfundiso yokwahlula-hlula kwiSikolo soMthetho seCornell

Isiphumo: UmGaqo-siseko ophilayo

Amalungelo abekwe kwi-United States umGaqo-siseko akawanyanzelisi amalungelo apheleleyo abekwe kwinkulungwane ye-18. Azizinto ezizikhuselayo ezifuna ukuhlaziywa nokusetyenziswa kweziphumo ezicacileyo zobomi baseMelika. Ukusuka kwizixhobo ezimnyama zezixhobo zekhompyutha ze-Moines ukuya kwiicell phone zethu, imigaqo yeBhili yamaLungelo ilawula eyona migaqo yobuhlobo kunye neyoluntu esiphila kuyo. Amatyala ahloliweyo apha angomzekelo nje omncinane wengxoxo eqhubekayo phakathi kweenkundla, urhulumente, nabantu. Abaqeqeqeshi nabafundi ngokufanayo, ababandakanye nale mizekelo yokwenene yehlabathi, bamele baqonde ulungelelwano phakathi kwegunya elingoorhulumente kunye nenkululeko yoluntu echaza inkqubo yomthetho yaseMelika. Umva opheleleyo lamalungelo alo malungelo angoorhulumente abanolwazi ngemithetho e-Washington, kodwa abaqondisigxandelwayo nabahlali abaluqondayo.