Isakhiwo Somanyano

Umanyano, ukwahlulwa kolawulo phakathi korhulumente wesizwe noorhulumente belizwe, kwenza isiseko sobume benkqubo yezobupolitika eUnited States. Esi sakhiwo, esifakwe kumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., sidala intsebenziswano ekhawulezileyo apho izigqibo ezenziwa eWashington, D.C., zihamba khona kumaphondo neeholo zesixeko. Abafundi kunye nabafundisi, beqonda indlela amagunya esizwe amile ngayo kunye nolawulo lwasekuhlaleni afunekayo ukuyiqonda ngokupheleleyo idemokhrasi yaseMelika. UMgaqo-siseko unika urhulumente ukuba adwelise amagunya asekuhlaleni njengemali engqekente, ukuvakalisa imfazwe, nokulawula ezinye iiholo zesixeko. Ngokunjalo, onke amagunya orhulumente akwiphondo okanye abantu phantsi kwe-10. Oku kuyavumelana; ukuguquka kwawo, kunye neengcinezelo yezoqoqosho, kunye nofundisiso nyakazo nyakazolawulo lwezwe.

Amalungiselelo angundoqo omgaqo-siseko

Izigwebo ezininzi zomgaqo-siseko zichaza imida yegunya likarhulumente. ISuprematy Claus (Artle VI, Claus 2) imisa ukuba umthetho karhulumente ngumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, intsingiselo yemithetho karhulumente ayinakungqubana nomthetho osemthethweni karhulumente osebenzayo. UMphengululo weSihlalo weSihlalo sisebenza njengesikhumbuzi somgaqo-siseko sokuba amandla angebiwa eUnited States agcinelwe kumazwe okanye kubantu. Umthetho weCommercional Clausle (I, I, iCate 8, Clausle 3) unika iNkkomfakezelo ukulawula ushishino namazwe asemzini, phakathi kwamazwe amaninzi, kwaye nezizwe ezininzi zama-Ena America. Ngokuthe xhathisayo, lo mthetho ucandel uyakwazi ukunikezela ngoncedo lwezorhwebo lwezoqoqosho oluthengiso oluthe ngqo, oluchaphazela ngokuthe ngqo nolulo lwelizwe.

Impembelelo Yezigqibo Zomanyano Kulawulo Lwesizwe

Izigqibo zomanyano ezimandundu zemigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente elawula imimandla erhabaxa njengemfundo, ezonyango, imigaqo yezobume bemekobume, kunye nezothutho. Ezi mpembelelo azingonto nje ethethwayo; zigqiba indlela amagumbi okufundela axhaswa ngayo, abaguli abanokufumana ngayo inkxaso-mali, imilinganiselo yomgangatho womoya ekufuneka ihlangatyezwe, nendlela ekwakhiwa ngayo oohola bendlela. Impembelelo isoloko esebenza ngokukhutshwa komthetho karhulumente (okanye ngamandla emali, ngokusebenzisa inkxaso kunye nenkxaso-mali yemeko yemeko-morejing.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wemfundo

Imfundo ingumsebenzi oyintloko wesizwe nowasekuhlaleni, kodwa iinkqubo zesizwe zidlale indima ebalulekileyo. ISebe Lemfundo Lemfundo Lezemfundo Ixhasa, ngo-2015, eyathatha indawo ye-No Child Lend Behind Act, ifuna ukuba kubekho imigaqo yemfundo enzima, inike iingxelo zonyaka, kwaye izikolo zigcine izikolo zixhomekeke ekwenzeni umsebenzi wabafundi. Ama-Amazwe kufuneka anikele iiplani zokuphendula kwii-akhawunti zeSebe lemfundo lezemfundo yase-U. ISihlomelo Inkxaso, esixhasa izikolo ezinenani eliphezulu labafundi abafumana imali ephantsi, zineemfuno ezithile ezimele zilandelwe ngamazwe. Ngaphezu koko, i-o-o-o-o-o-o-6 abanomthetho-Ethiwe-Estyraliethis (IDA) igunyazisa imfundo kawonke nemali elungiselelwe yi-Romidiya norhulumente-odshorensity, i-overtmental i-odss tracritectivess, kunye noography-ooography.

Imithetho yonyango

UMthetho we-Affordicure Care (ACA) ungumzekelo oyintloko wendlela inkqubo yezonyango yesizwe yomgangatho kazwelonke ophezulu nezigqibo zomgangatho karhulumente. I-ACA eyandisiweyo ye-Medicaid ilungele ukugquma abantu abadala ngengeniso ukuya ku 138% yentlawulo yobuhlwempu obulawulayo. Noko ke, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ka-2012 elawula [FOL:0] iLizwanotente ye-Intentensity ye-Intelligence v. Imithetho ye-Special [intelligence-menti:[[FL:1] yenza olu lwandiswano lwe-insholo lwe-inshorensidel [ice:] lungamele ukuxhomekeka ngokwamatheliswa kwazo.

Imithetho yokusingqongileyo

Imithetho yemekobume elungiselelwe yi-Epagel yeNdebezo yemekobume, elawulwa yi-Epagel yokhuseleko olufanelekileyo, emisela imilinganiselo encinci emele ihlangabezene ne-(okanye). UMthetho we-Eatmon Air, umzekelo, ufuna ukuba kubekho ulawulo lokuyila imigaqo-nkqubo yeSizwe yoMkhosi weSizwe (SIP) ukuze kufunyanwe imilinganiselo yobunjani yomgangatho womoya. Ukuba urhulumente ungayithobeli olufanelekileyo, i-EPA inganyanzela yecebo lesizwe. Amazwe afana ne-California, nge-oksibonda ye-oktha ye-EPA, ngegunya lokumisela imilinganiselo engqongqo yezithuthi zezithuthi zezithuthi zemoto, ezinye iindleko ezinokuthi ezinye iindleko zolawulo olufanelekileyo. I-Epact evumela igunya ngokufanayo lokuchaza ukuba kuhlangane nemithetho yomthetho karhulumente womthetho womthetho-Genegalelo-F:[0] isoloko ukuba alungele ukusetyenziswa kwemiqatha lemiqatha lemiqatha lemiqatha le-oki, i-conobolkn i

Imali elungiselelwe

Iminikelo yomanyano sisixhobo esinamandla sokuphembelela urhulumente kunye nenkqubo yasekuhlaleni. Urhulumente worhulumente unika amakhulu ezigidi zeerandi ngonyaka kumaphondo nakwimimandla ngeenkqubo ezahlukeneyo zokunika. Le mali iza neemeko. Ngokufuthi ibizwa ngokuba "iistring"" ezifuna iimeko zokwamkelwa kwemigaqo ethile okanye uqheliselo lolawulo lokutshintshisa ngemali. Ngelixesha lamazwe enokuthi angayichasi imali ye-ovential, anqabile ukwenza ngenxa yokuba izikhuthazo zemali zinkulu kakhulu.

Iintlobo zeeFederal Grants

  • IGawulo zoMgaqo-nkqubo ezithi zibonelele `````````''] ezi zezona ziqhelekileyo, zinika iimali ngeenjongo ezichanekileyo, ezifana nolwakhiwo lohola wendlela, iinkqubo zesidlo sasemini, okanye uthintelo lolwaphulo-mthetho. Abamkeli kufuneka banamathele kukhokelo olungqongqo lwezwe. Umzekelo, Inkqubo ephakamileyo ye-Aidral [[ ibonelela imali yezinto zothutho kodwa imiyalelo evumelana nemilinganiselo yesizwe yocwangciso, ukhuseleko, kunye nokuhlola imongobume.
  • IGrants ezinqandayo: Ezi zibonelelo zinika ubuchule obanzi bokusebenzisa imali kummandla jikelele, njengophuhliso loluntu okanye iinkonzo zoluntu. Inkqubo yoPhuhliso loluntu ivumela oorhulumente basekuhlaleni ukuba baxhase indidi eninzi lwemisebenzi ukusuka ekulungiseni izindlu ukuya kuphuhliso lwezoqoqosho, enemiqathango encinane kunemiqathango yemali enikwa abantu.
  • Izabelo: Ikhuphiswano linika unikezelo kurhulumente okanye koorhulumente basekuhlaleni, imibutho engafumani ngeniso, okanye amaziko ophando ukwenzela imisebenzi ethile. Imisebenzi efana neNational Institutes of Health kunye neSebe lemfundo linika iprojekthi ekhuthaza ukuqanjwa kodwa ifuna izicelo ezinzima kunye nokuxelwa.

Ukuxhomekeka kwimiqathango karhulumente kungenza i-fiscal vilneribial for State. Xa inkxaso-mali yemali ye-oventine incitshisiwe okanye ishenxiswa, iimeko kufuneka zinqumle iinkqubo okanye ziphakamise iingeniso zazo. Ngexesha lesifo se-COVOVID-19, urhulumente wanika uncedo olungxamisekileyo ngeKhoranovirus Effect, Inkxaso-Sizakhono, kunye noKhuselo lwezentengiselwano (CARES) Act kunye noMthetho weMelika yePlamfazelo, owanika amaziko kunye nemimandla inkxaso yexeshanazo zoncedo kodwa kwakhona wafika ngokusebenzisa imiqathango kunye nemiqathango.

Iingcaciso zogwebo lwaMagunya oManyano

Ijaji idlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuchazeni ububanzi bamandla orhulumente kunye nemida yayo enxulumene noorhulumente. Isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo singandisa okanye sigunya lorhulumente, liphembelela urhulumente ngqo kunye nolawulo lwasekuhlaleni. Kwiinkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo, iNkundla iye yasebenzisa imigaqo-siseko edityanisiweyo.Nkundla iye yasebenzisana phakathi koburhulumente obubini.

Ityala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla

  • McCulloch v Maryland (1819): Elityala lesiseko limisele imigaqo emibini engundoqo: urhulumente wezwe unamagunya adweliswe ngokucacileyo angaphaya kwalawo adweliswe kumGaqo-siseko, kwaye urhulumente akanakuwahlawula irhafu amaziko karhulumente. Uluvo lweJaji enkulu uJohn Marshall lwaqinisa ubungangamsha borhulumente kwaye lwabeka isiseko segunya elikhulu lezwe.
  • Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): INkundla yatolika iCommerce Claus, ibambe ukuba iKhomishini iyakwazi ukulawula naluphi na urhwebo olunqamleza iilayini zikarhulumente. Esi sigqibo sasusa indlela yolawulo lwezwe lohambo ngenqanawa, lwezithuthi, kwaye kamva, phantse wonke umsebenzi wezoqoqosho.
  • IFoderal Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (202): Kule meko yangoku, iNkundla yaxhasa ugunyaziso luka-ACA lomntu ngamnye njengomthetho osemthethweni wokusebenzisa amandla okurhafisa eBhunga kodwa yasilela phantsi ilungiselelo elaliza kunyanzelisa amazwe ukwandisa iMedicaid ngokusongela ukukhupha yonke inkxaso yeMedicaid ekhoyo. Oku kwaqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente wengingqi akanakunyanzela ukuba amkele iinkqubo ezintsha ngokuzigodlela iimali zabo bakhoyo.
  • South Dakota v. Dole (1987): INkundla yaxhasa umthetho karhulumente owayigodlela inxalenye yemali yendlela kwimimandla enganyusanga iminyaka yayo yokusela ukuya ku 21-20, imisela ukuba iKhomishini ingasebenzisa ukuchitha amandla ukuphembelela inkqubo karhulumente logama nje iimeko zicacile, zinxulumene nodweliso lwenkqubo yesizwe, kwaye zingadibani.

La matyala abonisa ukuba ukucaciswa kwetyala kungakuguqula ngokuphawulekayo ukulingana kwamandla. Umzekelo, ukutshintshwa kwakutshanje kweNkundla ekukhululweni kwephondo kwimimandla efana nokufuduka (umz., [[FLT: 0]]] Arizona v. United States, 2012) ummiselo womthetho karhulumente wokungena kwabantu ngoxa uqinisekisa ubukhulu borhulumente. Abafundi bafanele balandele indlela abanokumisa ngayo ibhentshi kwixa elizayo.

Uhlolisiso Lwemeko Lwempembelelo Yomanyano

Uhlolisiso olucacileyo lwezehlo lusenza siqonde indlela izigqibo ezenziwa ngurhulumente ezibachaphazela ngayo abantu bokwenene.

Isifundo seNkcazo 1: Imali yemfundo neSihlomelo I

Isihloko I soMthendeleko weSigabary kunye noMthendeleko weESEA, owenziwe okokuqala ngo1965 kwaye osandul' ukugunyaziswa kwakhona phantsi kwe-ESSA, unika imali yephondo elinomlinganiselo ophezulu wabafundi abafumanayo. Ngokubuya, isithili kufuneka sisebenzise imali eyongezelelekileyo, hayi ethatyathwa ngokwezolawulo kunye nenkcazo yasekuhlaleni. Oku kufunekayo kukhokelela kwimithetho entsonkothileyo kunye nophicotho-zincwadi. Umzekelo, isithili sesikolo esisemaphandleni iMississippis angafumana imali engamawaka amabini emalini eSihlombe I, ekufuneka inikele ngemilinganiselo yeklasi, okanye izinto ezifunekayo ukuze isetyenziswe ngokukhethekileyo kubafundi abafundayo. Ukuba ulawulo lwesizwe lufuna ungenelelo lobugqaliselo locwangciso lwezikoshiciko-o lwephondo lonke. [i-FT.]

Isifundo sesi-2: Ulwando lweMedicaid phantsi kweACA

Xa iACA yaba ngumthetho ngo-2010, yaqikelela ukuba onke amaphondo aye aza kwandisa uMdicaid ukugquma abantu abadala abafumana ingeniso ukuya kutsho ku-88% yeqondo lobuhlwempu lorhulumente. Emva kokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yenze ulwando lungabi namkhethe, kwavela ulwahlulo olunzulu. Ngonyaka wama-2025, ama-40 ephondo ne-Columbia akwamazwe aseMdicaid, ngoxa izikhululo zephondo zingakhange zikwazi. Kumazwe alishumi apho iinkokeli zezobupolitika zixhathise khona ukulwa, izigidi zabantu abadala abahlala “kwisithuba esisisityalo”.[1] //ngoomlinganiselo owemali eninzi kakhulu yesithethe yeMedicaid kodwa encinane kakhulu kwi-Medicaid kodwa engenziwa yi-inshorensiveri yoncedo lwasekuhlaleni. Le nkqubo yezopolitiki inokwenziwa ngendlela echuliweyo. Ngokuphikisana nemeko yezopolitiki.

Isifundo Setyala 3: Icebo Elicocekileyo Legunya Nezimvo Zalo

Ngo-2015, i-EPA yakhupha iClean Power Plan (CPP), efuna ukuba kuncitshiswe ukhupho lwekhabhon diokside kwizityalo ezikhoyo ngo-32% ukusuka kumgangatho ka-2005 ngo-2030. Amazwe anikwa ubuchule bokukhetha indlela yawo yokuthobela i-CPP ekwinkundla. Ngokufana nokujija irhasi yendalo, ukuqokelela amandla anokuphinda isetyenziswe, okanye ukuseka iinkqubo ze-cappe-trade. Ngaphezu koko, kuphenjelelwa ngamazwe alishumi elinesibini, aqhutywa ngamagqwetha jikelele kumazwe azimeleyo, avavanya iCPP enkundle, aphikisa i-EPA ekhohlo, athelela ukudlula igunya le-EPA. Isicwangciso asizange sithathe siphumo kuba iNkugqibele sahlala ngo-2016. Kamva, ulawulo lwe-Curplueced Eveced Evective, ulawulo lwe-bine-bian, i-eromes ezisetyenziswa kwakhona, i-enzation, i-enzalo projectal

Iingxaki Neengxaki

Ulwalamano lwengingqi yengingqi lukhuphiswano olungokwemvelo. Ukungavisisani ngobungakanani obufanelekileyo bamandla karhulumente kusoloko kukhokelela kumadabi asemthethweni, kwimisebenzi yezomthetho, nakwimiba yokungqubana kolawulo. Olu ngquzulwano lubonakala kakhulu kwiindawo apho izinto eziphambili zikarhulumente norhulumente zihlengahlengiswa.

Iindawo Zongquzulwano

  • Inkqubo yolwahlulo: Amazwe anjengeKhalifoniya, New York, kunye ne-Illinois amisele “imithetho elawula intsebenziswano nokunyanzelwa kwemibutho yokufuduka kwesizwe. Ngokuchaseneyo, iTexas ne-Arizona idlulise imithetho efuna ukunyanzeliswa komthetho wasekuhlaleni ukunceda i-ICE. Iinkundla zesizwe zilinganise ngomlinganiselo apho amazwe anokulawula ukufuduka/a amandla agcinelwe ngurhulumente wesizwe. Inkundla ePhakamileyo e- Arizona v. United States [2010] yabetha phantsi kweSB2], iqinisekisa ubungangamji bolawulo obuphakathi kwe-Onke ubuzwe kodwa ishiya amanye amalungiselelo obuzwelobonke.
  • Ulawulo lweGUN: UHlaziyo lwesibini ludala ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokuphatha izixhobo, kodwa luchaza ngokwahluka kakhulu ngendlela abalawula ngayo imipu. Umthetho womanyano umisela isiseko . njengokuhlola okungasemva kwentengiselwano ngabathengisi abagunyazisiweyo `kodwa amaziko asenokumisela imiqathango eyongezelelekileyo. Amanye amazwe, njengoKhalifoniya ne New York, anexesha elingqongqo lokuphatha, kunye nokuvala imiqathango yezixhobo zokuhlasela. Abanye, njengoTexas kunye noMontana, baye bavumela ukuba kubekho imithetho engalawuleki. Iingxabano zivela xa amagosa orhulumente efuna ukunyanzelisa imilinganiselo yesizwe, ngoxa amagosa karhulumente engavumi ukuthobela, ukucaphula ishumi lommiselo.
  • I-Access ye-Health Care recurety Access:[ Imiqathango ye-inshorensi, efana nokufuna i-inshorensi kwiimeko ezikhoyo ngaphambili okanye ukuvumela ii-akhawunti zemali yempilo, ukungqubana nezinye izinto eziza kuqala. Ngo-2018, umbutho wamazwe owenzelwe ukuphelisa yonke i-ACA, uphikisa ukuba ugunyaziso ngalunye alunagunyazamkeli. Ngelixa ukumangalelwa kungazange kuphumelele, kwabonisa ukhuphikiswano oluqhubekayo lwezopoliti kunye nomthetho kwigunya lezempilo.
  • Ukwenziwa kwasemthethweni komjelo-mali: Nangona umya womjelo uhlala ungekho mthethweni phantsi komthetho wezinto olawulwa ngurhulumente, ngaphezu kwesiqingatha sorhulumente uwubhalisile ngokwasemthethweni ukuze usetyenzise unyango okanye uyonwabise. Oku kwenza ummandla ongwevu osemthethweni wamashishini, iibhanki, nabasebenzisi. Urhulumente wengingqi ubekelw'ithuba elide ukuya kumazwe nge Cole Metrinandum (emva kokokubanzisa) kunye nabakhweli bexesha nexesha abathinteli beSebe leJastiwe kwimisebenzi yezonyango yeRhubham. Kodwa, phantsi kwemfazwe ekhoyo imfazwe ihlala ingalungiswangalungiswangalungi, kwaye amashishini karhulumente akakwazi ukufikelela iinkonzo zobhanki ngenxa yomthetho worhulumente.

Ikamva Lomanyano

Ukulungelelana kwamandla phakathi koorhulumente besizwe noorhulumente kuza kuqhubeka kuguquka. Imeko yokudibanisa ibonisa ungquzulwano kunye neendawo zentsebenziswano. Ukuqonda ezi mpembelelo kubalulekile kubafundi nakubafundisi xa belungiselela ukuqhubana nobomi boluntu.

Imikhwa Ekhulayo

  • Imo yelizwe elithe kratya: Amazwe aqinisa igunya lawo, ngokufuthi ekhokelwa yimithetho yowiso-mthetho nezindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente, kwimicimbi efana nokutshintsha kwemozulu, intlawulo encinci, kunye nokufuduka. Umzekelo, amaphondo amaninzi acwangcise ukunciphisa kwawo ukuthotywa kwegesi eshushu yegesi, adibanisa imidibaniso efana ne-U.S. Climate Alliance. Oku kunyanzela ulawulo oluphezulu lwendlela-mkhethelo kubonakalisa imbono ekhulayo yokuba urhulumente wengingqini ephantsi kakhulu okanye ephantsi kakhulu ukuba asebenze kwimicimbi enyanzela.
  • Inkcazo kwiZixhobo ezingundoqo: Ngaphandle koxinezeleko, oorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente badla ngokusebenzisana, ingakumbi kwiimeko ezimaxongo. Isifo se-COVID sabona umanyano lwamazwe azimeleyo lwemithetho engokwabelwa kwemichiza, uvavanyo, kunye nokhokelo lwempilo kawonke-wonke. Ngokufanayo, urhulumente wesizwe usebenza namazwe aphendula ngentlekele nge-FEMA, kwimali yoohola-ndlela ngeSebe le-Framsty, kwaye kunikwa uncedo oluvela kubameli abafana ne-NSF ne-NIH.
  • Umba woMngxuma-mali kunye noMngxuma-Nxaxhoso woMmandla: Intsingiselo yoorhulumente abamangalela urhulumente wesizwe kwiimeko ngokomthetho ikhawuleze. Amazwe eRiphabliki-e-endlele i-Riphabliki acelw'eme-era imimiselo; amaziko e-demokhrasi acelw'ayicel'imigaqo ye-Trump-era. Oku kudityaniswa kwemithetho ye-Trump-era kubangela ukungaqiniseki nokusebenza okucothayo. Izigqibo zeNkulelo zeNkukhosi eziPhakamileyo kwimiba yokukhupha isisuso, amalungelo okuvota, kunye nomthetho wemeko-bume zizakuqhubeka ukutsala kwakhona imigca yamandla orhulumente.
  • Imali edityanisiweyo yoManyano kunye netyala loMzalwane: Ityala elikhulayo likarhulumente lingakhokelela ekunciphiseni imali enikayo okanye iimeko ezongezelelekileyo kwii-dola. Ama-United States angajamelana nengcinezelo yokunyusa iirhafu okanye ukuhlisa iinkonzo ukuba ukuthunyelwa kukarhulumente kunciphiswano. Ngokuchasene noko, amatyala athi ukuhlawulwa koqingqo-mali kungabangela inkululeko engakumbi kulawulo lwamagunya karhulumente.

Ukukhangelwa kwamagunya karhulumente kunye nempembelelo yawo kumgangatho worhulumente kunye nowasekuhlaleni kutyhila ingeyonkqubo elula kodwa ulwalamano oluntsonkothileyo, oluxutyushwayo. Izigqibo zikazwelonke zicwangcisa isakhiwo, kodwa amazwe kunye neendawo zihlala zinobuchule obubalulekileyo, kwaye ukuxhathisa okubalulekileyo. Njengoko ilizwe lijamelene neengxaki ezisuka kutshintsho lwemozulu ukuya kukuphazamiseka kobugcisa, ukudityaniswa phakathi korhulumente, urhulumente, kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni baza kuhlala beyintlukwano echazayo ulawulo lweMelika. Ngokufunda ezi ntshukumo, abafundi bazuza uxabiso olunzulu ngemithetho yolawulo-rhulumente kunye nokusebenza kwedemokhrasi eUnited States.