Table of Contents

Ukuqonda amatyala abalulekileyo enkundleni kubalulekile kumntu ngamnye ofuna ukuqonda ubukhulu bamalungelo nenkululeko yakhe. Ezi zigqibo zomthetho zibalulekileyo zichaphazelele ngokusisiseko ibutho lamaMelika, zichaza imida phakathi kwenkululeko yomntu ngamnye negunya likarhulumente. Ukusukela kwinkundla yenkundla ukuya kubomi bemihla ngemihla, la matyala ayaqhubeka ephembelela indlela esiphila ngayo, ukusebenza, kunye nokusebenzisana namaziko omthetho kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente. Olu khokelo lunentsingiselo luhlola ezona zigqibo zibalulekileyo zeNkuNkundla Ephakamileyo eziye zakhusela zandalamane zize zandise inkululeko yabemi, kuqinisekisa ukuba abemi bayayiqonda isiseko esisemthethweni senkululeko yabo.

Isiseko Setyala Lelizwe Kwimiqathango YaseMerika

Izigqibo zenkundla yelifa lemveli zivela rhoqo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo, isebenza njengomxhasi opheleleyo wemibuzo yomgaqo-siseko eUnited States. La matyala amisela imizekelo esemthethweni emele ilandelwe ziinkundla ezincinci, adala isiseko esizinzileyo sokuchaza umGaqo-siseko nomthetho wesizwe. Intsingiselo yezi zigqibo ingaphaya kwenkundla yenkundla, ichaphazela izigidi zabantu baseMerika kubomi bazo bemihla ngemihla.

Indima yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabantu ivele ngokuphawulekayo kuyo yonke imbali yaseMerika. Ngexa ezinye izigqibo zangaphambili zigxininisa ulwaphulo-mthetho, iNkundla iye yasebenza ngokukhula njengomgcini wamalungelo oluntu kunye nenkululeko, ingakumbi ukususela phakathi kwinkulungwane yama-20 ukuya phambili. Ukusetyenziswa kweNkundla yomGaqo-siseko ukukhusela amalungelo abantu kunye nenkululeko yabo ukususela phakathi kwenkulungwane yama-20 ukuya ekuqaleni kweenkulungwane ezingama-21 kuchasene ngokuchanekileyo nemithetho yayo yangaphambili nasemva koko. Ukuqonda le ndaleko kunceda abemi baqonde inkqubela phambili yenkqubela phambili yendalo eyenzeka kunye neengxaki eziqhubekayo ekukhuseleni amalungelo omgaqo-siseko.

Okusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho Namalungelo Afanelekileyo Amiselwe Yinkqubo

UGidiyon .Wainwright: Ilungelo lokumela umthetho

Elinye lamatyala atshintshayo kwisigwebo sezaphuli-mthetho saseMerika nguGidiyon . Wainwright (1963). UGidion noWainwright ubophelelekile ekutshintsheni inkqubo yomthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho ngokunika ityala igqwetha eligweba ilungelo, nokuba abangakwazi ukulihlawula ngokwalo. Eli tyala laqala xa uClarence Earl Gideon, ummangalelwa owenqenayo wabekwa ityala ngetyala letyala eFlorida, wacela ukuba inkundla imisele igqwetha ukuba limmeli ukuba limmele. Xa isicelo sakhe sakhanyelwa, wanyanzeleka ukuba azimele etyala lakhe, waze agwetyelwe.

INkundla yathi uHlaziyo lweSithandathu olunelungelo lokunceda kwisiluleko lusebenza kwiinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho yaye "imithetho ekwinkundla yezaphuli-mthetho iyafuneka, asibububunewunewu". Esi sigqibo sibalulekileyo saqonda ukuba ngaphandle komelo olusemthethweni, abamangalelwa abanakufumana ityala elifanelekileyo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba lifanelekile na elo tyala. Isigqibo savuma ukuba inkqubo engokwasemthethweni intsonkothileyo ukuba abantu abaninzi bahambe ngokunempumelelo ngaphandle koncedo lobugcisa.

Kunye nelungelo lokunceda abamangalelwa bezaphuli-mthetho baseburhulumenteni, isigqibo sikaGidiyon saba nomphumo wokwandisa iinkqubo zokukhusela uwonke-wonke kulo lonke ilizwe. Oku kwatshintsha ngokusisiseko indlela okusebenza ngayo okusesikweni kolwaphulo-mthetho eMelika, kuqinisekisa ukuba ubuhlwempu bubodwa abunakukwazi ukuchaza iziphumo zetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho. Namhlanje, kukho iiofisi zikawonke-wonke kulo lonke ilizwe, zinika imelo esemthethweni kwizigidi zabamangalelwa abangakwaziyo ukuthenga amagqwetha.

Miranda v. Arizona: Ukukhusela Ukuchasene nokuzitshintsha-tshintsha

Mhlawumbi alikho ityala elithe lagxininiswa kakhulu kwimpucuko ethandwa kakhulu eMerika kuneMiranda kunye ne-Arizona (66). INkundla Ephakamileyo yavuma, isithi amapolisa amele axelele abarhanelwe ngamalungelo awo ngaphambi kokubuzwa. Eli tyala lavela emva kokuba uErnesto Miranda evume ukuba udlwengule okanye uqweqwedise emva kweeyure zokuncinwa ngamapolisa, ngaphandle kokuxelelwa amalungelo akhe asemthethweni.

Inkundla yafumanisa ukuba iziHlanziso zeNkundla zesihlanu nezeSithandathu zifuna ukuba amapolisa azise abantu abaselugcinweni ukuba banelungelo lokuhlala bethe cwaka nokuncedwa ligqwetha. Izilumkiso eziqhelekileyo "Miranda" ezithi amapolisa acengceleze ekubanjweni/$" unelungelo lokuthula. Nantoni na othethayo isenokusetyenziswa kwinkundla yomthetho. Unelungelo lokuthetha kwigqwetha"/stem ngqo kwesi sigqibo.

Ngokutsho kweNkundla, ukuba amapolisa ayasilela ukwenza oko, ijaji yenkundla yakwaphuli-mthetho isenokuwisa umthetho wokuba nawaphi na amazwi athethwa ngummangalelwa akanakuvunywa njengobungqina ngexesha lokuchotshelwa kwetyala. Oku kukhuselwa koonogada kwiindlela zokuncina amatyala kwaye kuqinisekisa ukuba ukuvuma izono kuyinto yokuzithandela ngokwenene. Isigqibo sikaMiranda siyawabona amandla akhoyo phakathi kokunyanzelwa komthetho kunye namatyala, kufuna ukuba kukhuselwe amalungelo omgaqo-siseko.

IMap v. Ohio: UMthetho weExcloion

Izinto ezifunyenwe ngokungekho mthethweni azinakusetyenziswa kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho, ngokwesigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo eMap v. Ohio (1961). Eli tyala lalibandakanya uDollree Mapp, owayenendlu ephengululwa ngamagosa amapolisa angakhange akhuphe siqinisekiso esisemthethweni sokufuna. Ebudeni bophando, amagosa afumana izinto ezingcolileyo aza ambamba.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yavuma yaza yasebenzisa umthetho wokususa umthetho wesiGqeba ukusuka kwiTyeki kunye neUnited States (1914). Esi sindululo saqinisekisa ukuba ubungqina obufunyanwa ngokuphandwa okungekho mthethweni nokuxhuzula akunakusetyenziswa nxamnye nabamangalelwa kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho karhulumente. Umthetho wokuzikhulula usebenza njengovavanyo oluqatha kumandla amapolisa, uthintela ukugcinwa komthetho ekuthinteleni ukukhuselwa kokungaqiqiqiqi nokuxwa okungekho ngqiqweni.

Isigqibo seMap siqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko asingolulo nje oluthethwayo kodwa lunenkqubo esebenzayo yokunyanzelisa ukugcinwa komthetho. Ngokungabufumani ubungqina obungekho mthethweni, iinkundla zisusa intshukumisa yokuba amapolisa aphule amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, akhusele iindawo zabemi nempahla yabo kurhulumente eziqhathayo.

Amalungelo Abemi Nokhuseleko Olulinganayo Phantsi Komthetho

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo: Ukuphela kohlanganiso

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ime njengezinye zezigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ezilandelayo kwimbali yaseMerika. Eli tyala layiphikisa ngqo imfundiso "yohlukene kodwa elinganayo" eyamiselwa kwiPlesty v. Ferguson (1896), eyayivumele ubuhlanga kwizakhiwo zikawonke wonke phantse iminyaka engamashumi amathandathu. Isigqibo seBrown savakalisa ngamacala onke ukuba ucalucalulo lohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke lwalwaphula uKhuselo olulinganayo luka-Celasme oMnyuselo we-145.

INkundla yavuma ukuba izibonelelo zemfundo ezicalucalulwe ngokwemvelo azilingani, kungakhathaliseki ukuba amaziko omzimba kunye noovimba balingana na. Esi sigqibo savuma ukuba umonakalo wengqondo nowentlalo obangelwa kukungalingani kwesizwe, okuphawula incopho yokuguquka kombutho wamalungelo abantu. Brown v. iBrown. ibhodi yemfundo yanikezela isiseko esisemthethweni sokususa uJim Crow imithetho eMazantsi kunye nemigudu ephembelela ukufikelela umlinganiselo wobuhlanga.

Ukuphunyezwa kukaBrown kwajamelana nokuchaswa okukhulu kumazwe amaninzi, nto leyo eyayifuna ungenelelo lwamazwe ukunyanzelisa imiyalelo yokuphelisa intlalo-ntle. Phezu kwayo nje le mingeni, isigqibo samisela umgaqo wokuba umGaqo-siseko awuluvumeli ucalucalulo lobuhlanga olukhuselwe ngurhulumente, ngokusisiseko olugqwetha ibutho nemithetho yamaMelika.

Virginia Onothando: Ilungelo Lokutshata

Ngo1967, i-Loving v. Virginia yafikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, eyawufumanisa ngamxhelo mnye umthetho ochasene ne-gcisayo waseVirginia njengongavumelaniyo nemithetho. Imbono yeJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren yavakalisa ukuba umthetho weVirginia kunye nabanye abafana nawo awuphumeleli njongo esengqiqweni ngaphandle kokukhuthaza ucalucalulo lobuhlanga. Eli tyala lalibandakanya uRichard noMildred Lovel, isibini esinobuhlanga esagwetywa ngolwaphulo-mthetho ngokutshatiswa ngokuchasene noMthetho we-raccian Intellige.

Ngaphezu koko, wayekholelwa ukuba imithetho ephazamisa umtshato weentlanga ezahlukeneyo yayikukwaphulwa okucacileyo kwe-Avimelt Protection Claus. INkundla yawugqala umtshato njengelungelo elisisiseko elingenakuthintelwa ngokusekelwe kwimiqathango yobuhlanga. Esi sigqibo sayiphelisa imithetho echasene nokungavumelani nezizwe kumaphondo alishumi elinesithandathu, iqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko yokutshata nomntu ozikhethelayo lilungelo elisisiseko loluntu.

Imigaqo eyamiselwa kwiLoving v. Virginia yadlulela ngaphaya kwemiqathango yomtshato esekelwe kuhlanga. Kwisigqibo sonyaka ka-2015, iObergefell iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaphelisa imiqathango yombuso, imiqathango karhulumente ekwalekwe kumtshato ongokwakwabelana ngokwesini. Ngoko ke, u-Obergefell wathi kukuchasana komGaqo-siseko ngokucalula abantu ngokusekelwe kwimbonakalo yabo yesini ukuba bafuna ukutshata nomntu wesini esinye. Oku kubonisa indlela ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu olumiselwe iqela elinye olunokwandiswa ngayo ukukhusela abanye.

Amatyala Amalungelo Abemi Nelifa Labo

Asizizo zonke izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo eziye zawaphucula amalungelo abantu. ISibeko samaLungelo sasekuhlaleni, i-109 U.S. (1883), yayiliqela lamatyala amahlanu aphawulayo apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States yathi ukuhlaziywa kweZiko leshumi elinesithathu neleshumi elinesine lokuLawulwa kokungagunyazi koMbutho ukuba ulwelo lobuhlanga lwabantu ngabanye. Esi sigqibo sayibetha iNavil Rights Act ka-1875, eyazama ukuphelisa ucalucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwiindawo zikawonke wonke.

Isigqibo sangenisa ucalucalulo olusasazekileyo lwabantu abantsundu kwizindlu, imisebenzi, kunye nobomi bukawonke-wonke obabagcina kudidi lwesibini kulo lonke elaseUnited States de kudluliselwe umthetho wamalungelo abantu kwiminyaka yee-1960. Eli tyala libonisa ukuba izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zinokuwamisela amalungelo kwaye zandise, zibalaselisa ukubaluleka kokuhlala bephaphile ekukhuseleni inkululeko yomGaqo-siseko.

Ukuqonda ezi zinto ziphazamisayo kubalulekile ekuqondeni umzabalazo okudala ulwela amalungelo abantu nokubaluleka kwenyathelo lomthetho xa unyango lwezomthetho lubonakala lunganelanga. UMthetho waMalungelo oMsebenzi waMazwe onke ka-1964 ekugqibeleni wafeza oko uMthetho wama-1875 obengenako, usebenzisa amandla eBhunga lokulawula urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe kunokuthembela ngokupheleleyo kuMphetho-Mgaqo-nkqubo weshumi elinesine.

Inkululeko Yokuqala Yokulungiswa: Intetho, Ugxininiso, Nonqulo

New York Times v. Sullivan: Inkululeko Yephephandaba

Ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala namhlanje lunganika imibutho yamajelo eendaba inkululeko enkulu, kodwa oko kwakungenjalo ngeminyaka yee-1960 xa amalungelo okucofa ayethintelwe kakhulu yimithetho karhulumente eyayikhusela amanani kawonke wonke kwilahleko kunye nokunyeliswa. Imeko ka-1944 yeNew York Times v. Sullivan ngokusisiseko yaguqula eli lizwe.

Ityala lavela xa iNew York Times yapapasha isibhengezo esixhasa uMartin Luther King Jr. kwaye igxeka iMontgomery, isebe lamapolisa lase-Alabama. UMphathi wamapolisa uL.B. Sullivan wagweba iTimes ngelibhele, ecaphula iimpazamo ezincinane kumbhalo wesibhengezo, njengamanani ezihlandlo uKumkani abanjwa ngazo. Inkundla yase-Alabama yanika i-CPFolanummaR50 000 — elingana ne-izigidi ezingama-5 zeerandi

Ukuze angqine ukukhulula, igosa likawonke-wonke kufuneka libonise ukuba oko kwakuthethwa nxamnye nabo kwenziwa ngezona nkohlakalo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba ngelithi. Lo mlinganiselo "wezenzo zobundlobongela" ufuna ubungqina bokuba ummangalelwa wayesazi ukuba le ngxelo yayibubuxoki okanye yayisenziwa ngokungakhathali. Lo mvalo uphezulu ukhusela ingxubusho kawonke wonke kunye nokugxekwa kwamagosa karhulumente, eqonda ukuba iimpazamo ezithile ezizizo azinakuphepheka kwintetho kawonke-wonke eyomeleleyo.

Isigqibo seSullivan siqinisekisa ukuba amaphephandaba angayifeza indima yawo njengendlela yokuhlola igunya likarhulumente ngaphandle koloyiko lokufumana imigwebo ephazamisayo kwiimpazamo ezincinane. Olu khuselo lubalulekile kumaziko ophando nokuphendula kukawonke-wonke, avumela abemi ukufumana inkcazelo efunekayo ukuze bathathe inxaxheba kwidemokhrasi.

UDes Moines: Amalungelo Abafundi Okuthetha

INkundla ePhakamileyo yathi abafundi abawahlawuli amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko enkululeko yokuthetha... kwisango lendlu yesikolo" kwityala lephawu letyala leTinker v. Des Moines (1969). Eli tyala lalibandakanya abafundi ababenxibe iintambo ezimnyama esikolweni ukulwa imfazwe yaseVietnam kwaye babebotshelelwe ngenxa yokungavumi ukuzisusa.

Ngenxa yoko, iNkundla yafumanisa ukuba intetho yabafundi inokwalelwa ukuba iphazamisa inkqubo yemfundo. Ngenxa yokuba kwakungekho bungqina bokuphazamisa okunjalo, isikolo sasichasene nenkululeko yokuGqibela Yokuqala. Esi sigqibo saqinisekisa ukuba abafundi bagcina amalungelo omGaqo-siseko esikolweni, nangona la malungelo anokulungelelaniswa ngokuchasene nomsebenzi wemfundo wesikolo.

ITinker iye yaba ngunobangela ophambili wamalungelo asekelwe kwisikolo sokuHlaziya koLuhlu lokuqala. Isigqibo siyaqonda ukuba izikolo azingomalungu omzimba omzimba okhuselwayo kwimigaqo-siseko, nokuba amalungelo abafundi kufuneka ahlonelwe nakwimeko-bume yemfundo. Lo mgaqo uye waguqula amatyala amaninzi alandelayo abandakanya indlela abafundi abathetha ngayo, ukususela kumaphephandaba esikolo ukuya kumaphephandaba e-intanethi.

Amalungelo Obuqu Nenkululeko Yobuqu

Ilungelo lomGaqo-siseko lokuba wedwa

Ngeli xesha igama elithi "privcy" lingaveli kumGaqo-siseko, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zomgaqo-siseko zidala iindawo zobuqu ezikhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. La malungelo obuqu afunyenwe kwiMithetho yeQaqo-siseko yokuqala, eyesithathu, eyesine, eyesihlanu, neyeNinth, kwakunye neMithetho yeMgaqo yeMigaqo yeMinyaka Elishumi elinesine ka-Celaspease.

Amalungelo abantu aquka izigqibo ezininzi zobuqu, ukususela kwisigqibo sokuzala ukusa kulwalamano olusondeleyo. Ukuwaqonda la malungelo kubonisa umgaqo wokuba ezinye izigqibo zingokobuqu yaye zisisiseko kangangokuba urhulumente akafanele aziphazamise xa zingekho izigwebo ezinyanzelisayo. Lo mthetho womgaqo-siseko uyaqhubeka uguquka njengokuba ubugcisa bubangela iingxaki ezintsha zemfihlo nokutshintsha kwesimo sengqondo sentlalo.

Umgaqo - siseko Wesine Wokulungiswa

ISindululo sesine sikhusela abemi ekuphandeni okungekho ngqiqweni nasekuxhuzuleni, sifuna ukuba umthetho ufumane imvume esekelwe kwizizathu ezilindelekileyo ngaphambi kokuphendla impahla yabucala. Abafundi banokulindela okuncitshisiweyo kwemfihlo esikolweni. INkundla Ephakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba amalungelo akhe awaphulwanga ekubeni abafundi benciphise oko kulindelwe yimfihlo esikolweni, njengoko kusungulwe eNew Jersey v. T.L.O. (1985).

Eli tyala libonisa ukuba amalungelo obuqu akaphelelanga kodwa kufuneka alungelelaniswe nezinye izilangazelelo ezibalulekileyo, ezifana nokhuseleko lwesikolo kunye nengqeqesho. INkundla ivelise iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuhlalutya xa uphando lusengqiqweni, iqwalasela oothunywashe abafana nendawo ekuphengululwa kuyo, ukusetyenziswa kwendlela yokuphendla, kunye nokulunga kukarhulumente kokuqhuba uphando.

Ukuqonda iMimiselo yeSine yoLawulo kunceda abemi baqonde ukuba banokulandula nini ukuphengulula yaye xa umthetho uphosa imida.

Umanyano Nokulungelelana Kwamandla

McCulloch v. Maryland: Federal Supremacy

Isigqibo seMcCulloch samisela imigaqo emibini ebalulekileyo yomthetho-siseko eqhubekayo namhlanje: amagunya achazayo kunye nobukhulu borhulumente. Eli tyala lowe-1819 lavela xa uMaryland wazama ukurhafisa iBhanki yesibini yaseUnited States, kwaye iNkundla ePhakamileyo kwafuneka igqibe enoba iBhunga linegunya kusini na lomgaqo-siseko lokuyila ibhanki yesizwe nokuba amaziko asekuhlaleni anokuhlawula irhafu.

Uluvo loMgwebi omkhulu uJohn Marshall waseka ukuba iBhunga linamandla achazayo ngaphaya kwalawo adweliswe ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko, athathwe kuMfaneleko noMhleko kaClaus. Esi sigqibo sakwaqinisekisa ukuba umthetho wesizwe uphakamile kunomthetho karhulumente ongqubanayo, uthintela amazwe ukuba angaphazamisani nemisebenzi esemthethweni karhulumente. Le migaqo ihlala isekelwe ekuqondeni ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente norhulumente.

Isikhephe se-Cercal Claus

INkundla yathi yindima karhulumente wesizwe ukulawula ezorhwebo nokuba oorhulumente bakarhulumente abanako ukuvelisa imithetho yabo yezorhwebo elawulayo. Ngaphezu koko, iNkundla yavelisa ingcaciso ebanzi ye "ikhomputha," iqiqa ngelithi eli gama liquka okungaphezulu kunokuthengisa nokuthenga nje. Le nkcazelo ibanzi yeChwebiclaus Claus evumela iBhungane ukuba licombulule imicimbi yezoqoqosho zesizwe, kwaye, kamva, ukuphelisa ucalucalucalulo kwiindawo zikawonke-wonke.

Impembelelo yeGibbons isavakala nanamhlanje njengoko inika urhulumente wesizwe isiseko esithe xhaxhe ukulawula intengiso yezoqoqosho. Le mbono indala yamandla orhwebo yengingqi iye yasetyenziswa ukuthethelela uludwe olubanzi lomthetho wesizwe, ukusuka kwimimiselo yemekobume ukuya kwimithetho yamalungelo abantu, ebonisa indlela iinkcazelo zomGaqo-siseko zantlandlolo eziqhubeka ngayo zibumba ulawulo lwale mihla.

Iimeko Zembali Ezaguqula Ukuqonda UmGaqo-siseko

UGqr Scott . Sandford: Isifo Esimanyumnyezi

Asingawo onke amatyala aphawula inkqubela kubulungisa. Isigqibo sikaGqrded Scott simi njengesinye sezona zigwebo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezidume kakubi. IJaji enkulu uRoger Brooke Taney wabhala uluvo lwabaninzi, apho iNkundla yayisithi akukho mntu Mntsundu, nokuba ulikhoboka okanye ukhululekile, unokuba ngummi waseMelika. Esi sigqibo sakhanyela uDrede Scott, indoda elikhoboka eyakhe yahlala kwimimandla yenkululeko, ilungelo lokumangalela inkululeko yakhe kwinkundla yelizwe.

Wagweba ukuba amakhoboka ayimpahla, kungekhona abemi, ehlutha iBhunga lemithetho yokubeka imithetho ehlutha abanini bamakhoboka abo abantu, "abafaneleki". Isigqibo sabangela ukuba iMissouri ingabi namsebenzi kwaye ithintele iBhunga liyekelele ukulwa nobukhoboka kuyo nayiphi na ingingqi yase-United States. Esi sigqibo satshisa ungquzulwano lwamaqela yaye safak ’ isandla ekuqhambukeni kwemfazwe yamakhaya.

Emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya, esi sigqibo sakhutshwa kukuhlaziywa kwemithetho yezomthetho yeshumi elinesithathu neyeshumi elinesine. Ityala likaDrede Scott lisebenza njengesikhumbuzo esicacileyo sokuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayisokuze igqibelele kwaye kufuneka iinguqu zomgaqo-siseko ukuze kulungiswe iimpazamo zomthetho. Ukuqonda le mbali kunceda abemi baqonde ukubaluleka kokulungiswa komgaqo-siseko kunye nomzabalazo oqhubekayo wokuzalisekisa isithembiso somGaqo-siseko sokusesikweni okulinganayo.

Plesty v. Ferguson: Yahlukile Kodwa Iyalingana

Ngaphezu kweshumi leminyaka emva kokuba kugqitywe i-Civil Rights Cases, iNkundla yaya phambili kwiPlessy v. Ferguson ukulawula "lo mthetho ohlaliswe ngokwendawo kwindawo yoluntu kwizindlu zikawonke-wonke wawukwangumGaqo-siseko". Esi sigqibo so1896 saxhasa umthetho weLouisiana owawufuna iinqwelo zoololiwe ezahlukeneyo kubakhweli abaNsundu nabamhlophe, ukuseka "ukukhetha kodwa kulingana" imfundiso eyakuthethelela ukuhlaliswa kwendlu kawonke-wonke iminyaka engamashumi amathandathu.

IJaji uJohn Marshall Harlan ayivumelananga nemithetho yokuba umthetho ufanele uxhaswe, ethetha ngokuchasene okukodwa, "ngembono yomGaqo-siseko, ngokweliso lomthetho, akukho zwe liphezulu, lilawulayo, udidi olulawulayo lwabemi. UmGaqo-siseko wethu umfamekile, kwaye akawazi okanye akawanyamezele amaqela phakathi kwabemi. Ngokubhekiselele kumalungelo abantu, bonke abemi bayalingana phambi komthetho. Ukwahlukana kukaHarlan, nangona kungafunwa ngabantu abaphila kunye naye, imigaqo emiselweyo eya kuthi ekugqibeleni iphumelele kuBrown v.

Isigqibo sePlesty sanceda amashumi eminyaka ocalulo olukhutshiweyo nocalulo olucalulwe ngurhulumente, ebonisa indlela iinkcazelo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezinokuwaqhubela phambili okanye ziphazamise ngayo amalungelo omGaqo-siseko. Umva ogqithisileyo wePassy ubonisa ukuba ukuqonda okugqithiseleyo komGaqo-siseko nokuzingisisa okuzingisileyo kusenokukhokelela ekulungiseni okungekho sikweni kwangaphambili.

Ukuqonda Amalungelo Akho OmGaqo-siseko

Inkululeko Yokuthetha

Ukhuseleko loMphetho wokuqala wenkululeko yokuthetha luphakathi kweyona nkululeko ixabisekileyo yaseMelika, kodwa ayiphelelanga. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yavelisa iimvavanyo neemfundiso ezahlukeneyo zokugqiba xa intetho ikhuselwe naxa inokuthi ithintelwe. Intetho ekhuselayo iquka intetho yezopolitiko, imisebenzi yobugcisa, ukuthetha okufuziselayo, kwaneembono ezicaphukisayo okanye ezingathandwayo.

Noko ke, iindidi ezithile zentetho azikhuselwa kangako okanye azikhuselwa kwaphela, kuquka izisongelo zokwenene, ukuphenjelelwa kwisenzo esimandundu esingekude somthetho, ukuhlambela, ukunyelisa nokuqhatha. Ukuqonda le nkululeko kunceda abemi bayazi imida yenkululeko yabo ecacileyo naxa imiqathango karhulumente yokuthetha isenokuba ngumGaqo-siseko.

Ukhuseleko lwentetho ekhululekileyo lusebenza jikelele kwimiqathango karhulumente, hayi kwimiqathango yangasese. Abaqeshi bobucala, iinqanaba zezentlalo-ntle, kunye namanye amaqumrhu angengawo oorhulumente awanyanzelekanga kuLawulo Lokuqala loHlaliso, nangona esenokuba phantsi kweminye imiqathango esemthethweni. Lo mahluko ubalulekile ekuqondeni umgangatho wamalungelo enkululeko yokuthetha kwibutho lanamhlanje.

Ndinelungelo Lokuzifihla

Amalungelo abantu ngawabo akhusela abantu ekugxambukeni kwimicimbi yabo yobuqu. La malungelo aquka izigqibo eziphathelele ulwalamano lwentsapho, ukuzala, ukuzilawula, kunye nezinxulumani ezisondeleyo. INkundla Ephakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba izigqibo ezithile zingezozozobuqu kangangokuba abantu bamele bazenzele ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa ngurhulumente.

Ukhuseleko lwezakho zobuqu ludlulela kwizithuba ezibonakalayo, ulwazi lobuqu, kunye nothungelwano. UMthetho wesine woLawulo ufuna imvume yokuphengulula amakhaya neziphumo zobuqu, ngoxa imithetho eyahlukahlukeneyo karhulumente nekarhulumente ilawula indlela oorhulumente kunye namaqumrhu oluntu anokuqokelela ngayo, asebenzise, abelane ngenkcazelo yobuqu. Njengoko ubugcisa buhambela phambili, umthetho wemfihlo uyaqhubeka utshintsha indlela yokucombulula iingxaki ezintsha ezifana nokuhlola amanani, ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi, nolwazi ngemichiza.

Izakhamuzi zifanele ziqonde ukuba amalungelo abo ayimfihlo ayahluka kuxhomekeka kumongo woko kuthethwa ngawo. Abantu ngokuqhelekileyo balindele ukuba umntu abe wedwa kumakhaya abo kunasezikhuselini zikawonke wonke, yaye ezinye izinto zisenokungakhuseleki kunabanye. Ukwazi ezi zinto kunceda abantu benze izigqibo ezizizo ngokukhusela amathuba abo okuzifihla nokuphazamisa okunokuba lucelomngeni.

Ukukhuselwa Ngokulinganayo Phantsi Komthetho

ISichithi soMphetho seshumi elinesine soKhuselo oluManyeneyo lukaClaus sikwalela ukukhanyela nabani na olinganayo ukukhuselwa kwemithetho. Eli lungiselelo liye laba sisiseko sokucel ’ umngeni ucalucalulo olusekelwe kwibala, kwisini, kwimvelaphi yesizwe, nakwezinye iimpawu. INkundla Ephakamileyo isebenzisa imigangatho eyahlukeneyo yokuhlola ixhomekeke kuhlobo lokwahlulwa okubandakanyekileyo.

Ukwahlulwa kobuhlanga kwamkelelwa "ukuhlolwa kwecandelo," owona mgangatho ufuna uphicothiweyo, ufuna urhulumente ukungqina ukuba ukwahlulwa kolwahlulo kunika umdla onyanzelisayo kwaye kulungiselelwe ngokunqamlezileyo ukufikelela loo mdla. Ukuhlelwa kohlobo lufumana "ukuhlolwa komququzelelo," kufuna umdla obalulekileyo karhulumente kunye nolwalamano oluqinileyo phakathi kokuhlelwa kolwahlulo kunye nenzala. Ezinye iinkalo zifumana "uhlaziyo," ifuna kuphela ukuba ulwahlulo lunxulumene ngokufanelekileyo nenjongo karhulumente.

Ukuqonda imigaqo elinganayo yokukhusela kunceda abemi baluqonde ucalucalulo olungekho mthethweni yaye bamele balwenze ngendlela esesikweni.

Amalungelo enkqubela alindelekileyo

IsiHlanziso sesihlanu neseshumi elinesine siqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakubuhlutha ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kwenkqubo yomthetho. Inkqubo efunekayo inamalungu angokwemveli nawaphantsi. Inkqubo yesithethe ifuna iinkqubo ezifanelekileyo ngaphambi kokuba urhulumente ahluthe izilangazelelo ezikhuselekileyo, ezifana nesaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa.

Inkqubo esisiseko esisiseko ikhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko ekungeneleleni kukarhulumente kungakhathaliseki ukuba ziziphi iinkqubo ezisetyenziswayo. La malungelo aquka inkululeko ekhankanywe ngokucacileyo kumGaqo-siseko kwakunye namalungelo angenakusetyenziswa agqalwa njengasisiseko kwinkululeko. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yawamkela amalungelo afunekayo okutshata, ukukhulisa abantwana, ukungavumi unyango olungafunekiyo, nezinye izigqibo zobuqu.

Abafundi banelungelo lamalungelo athile afanelekileyo enkqubo ethile. INkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa umthetho ngabafundi, isithi xa urhulumente enika bonke abemi bakhe imfundo, ayinakubaphuca ngaphandle kokuqinisekisa ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo, njengoko kumiselwe kwiGos v. Lopez (1975). Lo mgaqo udlulela ngaphaya kwemfundo ukuze ungenelwe okanye ukhuselwe nomdla kurhulumente.

Ukuqhubeka Kukho Imvelaphi Yamalungelo OmGaqo-siseko

Ucelomngeni Lwale Mihla Kwizinto Eziye Zavela

Umthetho womGaqo-siseko awumi ndawonye. INkundla ePhakamileyo iphinda iphinde ifumane izigqibo yaye maxa wambi igqithise izigqibo zangaphambili, ibonakalisa ukutshintsha kwemilinganiselo yentlalo, iingqiqo ezintsha eziyinyaniso, okanye iintanda-bulumko ezahlukileyo zogwebo. Ngoxa umgaqo wokuqwalasela idecisis (ukuhlola imizekelo) ukhuthaza uzinzo nokuqikelela, iNkundla iqaphele ukuba eminye imizekelo isenokuba ibuthathaka kangangokuba imele iphendulwe.

Amashumi eminyaka akutshanje aye abona iingxoxo ezibalulekileyo ngendima efanelekileyo yemizekelo naxa ifanele ipheliswe. Ezi ngxoxo zichaphazela amalungelo asisiseko kwaye zibonakalisa ukungavisisani okunzulu ngokuchazwa komGaqo-siseko. Abami kufuneka baqonde ukuba amalungelo avunywa yiNkundla Ephakamileyo asenokuphinda ahlolwe, nto leyo eyenza ukuba kuqhubeke kuyimfuneko ukusoloko kusenziwa ngobuchule nokuphaphamisa.

Ubuxhakaxhaka kunye namalungelo omgaqo-siseko

Inkqubela yobugcisa idala ucelomngeni olutsha lokusebenzisa imigaqo yomgaqo-siseko eyaphuhliswa ngamaxesha awahlukeneyo. Uthungelwano lwamanani, iGPS, ukulandelelana kobuso, ukwazi ukumbiwa kogcino-lwazi, kunye nezinye iiteknoloji ziphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ngokuphathelele ukuzimela, ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, namanye amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. IiNkundla kufuneka zimisele indlela ukhuseleko lwesithethe lomgaqo-siseko olusebenza ngayo kule meko mitsha.

Ngokomzekelo, ngaba urhulumente unokunyanzela abantu ukuba bavule ijelo lokuHlaziya loMhlaziyi njengendlela yokuthetha yesithethe?

Indima yomGaqo-siseko kaRhulumente

Ngeli xesha eli nqaku ligxininisa kumalungelo omgaqo-siseko karhulumente, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe ukwakhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Amalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko karhulumente asenokunikela ukhuseleko olungaphezulu kuneenkundla zelizwe lawo, yaye iinkundla zeli lizwe zisenokuluchaza ngokwahlukileyo ulwimi olufanayo kuneenkundla zikarhulumente. Amanye amaphondo anokhuseleko olucacileyo lwemfihlo, iziqinisekiso ezibanzi zokuthetha, okanye amalungiselelo anamandla alinganayo nomGaqo-siseko wesizwe.

Abemi kufuneka balumkele ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko worhulumente nolorhulumente, njengoko umthetho karhulumente unika iimpendulo xa umthetho karhulumente ungekho. Ukubekwa komGaqo-siseko weRhulumente kuye kwaba baluleke ngakumbi njengoko abaxhasi befuna ukukhusela amalungelo asenokungafumani ukhuseleko olwaneleyo phantsi kwenkcazelo yomgaqo-siseko yangoku.

Indlela Abemi Abanokuwakhusela Ngayo Amalungelo Abo

Ukwazi Ixesha Lokuphulwa Kwamalungelo

Ukuqonda amalungelo omgaqo-siseko linyathelo lokuqala lokuwakhusela. Abami kufuneka bazifundise ngamalungelo abo kwiimeko ezifana nokunxibelelana nomthetho, iimbambano emsebenzini, urhulumente angenele izigqibo kunye nezicwangciso zemfundo. Ukwazi ukuba luluphi ukhuseleko olukhoyo kunceda abantu baqonde xa oko kukhuselwa kuphulwa.

Xa kuvela ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo, kusenokufumaneka iindlela ezahlukeneyo zonyango. Ezi ziquka ukuphosa ityala kumaqumrhu karhulumente, ukufuna uhlolo-nkqubo lwezenzo zikarhulumente, ukuqulunqa ityala lamalungelo abantu, nokukhuthaza iinguqu zenkqubo. Unyango olufanelekileyo luxhomekeke kwimo yokwaphulwa kwamalungelo aqulethweyo.

Ukubaluleka Kokubandakanyeka Kwisityalo Secapuca

Amalungelo omGaqo-siseko awazinqumlisi. Afuna ukuzikhusela ngokuzibophelela kwezentlalo, kuquka ukuvota, ukuqhagamshelana nabameli abanyuliweyo, ukuba nenxaxheba kwiinkqubo zokugqabaza zikawonke-wonke, kunye nemibutho exhasayo exhasa inkululeko yasekuhlaleni. Amatyala amaninzi abonisa iziganeko eziphawulekayo aqala ngabantu abangavumiyo ukulwamkela amalungelo abo baze baqhubeke behlaziywa kangangeminyaka.

Abahlali bangaxhasa ukuzimela ngokwamatyala nomthetho ngokuqonda indima yeenkundla ekukhuseleni amalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Ngoxa iinkundla zingafezekanga yaye maxa wambi ziye zasilela ukukhusela amalungelo ngokufanelekileyo, ijaji elizimeleyo liseyimfuneko ekuhloleni igunya likarhulumente nasekuqinisekiseni imiqathango yomgaqo-siseko.

Oovimba Bokufunda Okungakumbi

Imibutho emininzi ilungiselela ubuchule bokuqonda amalungelo omgaqo-siseko, kuquka i-Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), iBill of Rights Institute, iZiko loMgaqo-siseko weSizwe, nemibutho eyahlukahlukeneyo yoncedo olusemthethweni. La maqela anikela izinto zokufundisa, izikhokelo zakho ezikwaziyo amalungelo akho, kunye noncedo lwasemthethweni kwabo baphulwe amalungelo abo.

Ukufunda izigqibo zenkundla kunceda abemi balapho baqonde indlela esetyenziswa ngayo imigaqo yomgaqo - siseko kwizibakala ezithile.

Izikolo zomthetho, iiyunivesithi nemibutho yasekuhlaleni idla ngokunikela izifundo neenkqubo zomthetho womgaqo-siseko namalungelo abantu.

Izinto Ezibalulekileyo Zokukhusela Inkululeko Yakho

Amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo amisele ilungiselelo elisemthethweni lenkululeko yabantu eMelika. Ukusuka kwilungelo lokumela ngokwasemthethweni kwiimeko zolwaphulo-mthetho ukuya kwinkululeko yokuthetha nokukhuselwa ngokulinganayo phantsi komthetho, ezi zigqibo zichaza ulwalamano phakathi kwabemi norhulumente. Ukuqonda la matyala kunika abantu amandla okuqonda amalungelo abo, ukuchaza ukwaphula umthetho, nokuthatha inyathelo lokukhusela inkululeko yemithetho-siseko.

Awona malungelo abalulekileyo amiselwe ngamatyala ophawu olubonakalayo aquka:

  • Inkululeko yokuthetha nokucofa – ikhuselwe yiSigqibo sokuqala soLawulo kunye neemeko ezifana neNew York Times v. Sullivan neTinker v. Des Moines, ivumela ingxoxo kawonke-wonke kunye nokugxekwa kukarhulumente
  • ekunene kwimfihlo – Ikhutshwe kumalungiselelo amaninzi omgaqo-siseko kunye nokukhusela izigqibo zobuqu ekuphazanyisweni ngurhulumente
  • Ukhuseleko olupheleleyo phantsi komthetho – iqinisekiswe nguMphetho-weshumi elinesine kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwiimeko ezifana noBrown v. iBrown of Education and Loving v. Virginia, ithintela ucalucalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga nakwezinye iimpawu ezikhuselweyo
  • Ilindelekile namalungelo enkqubo – Ifuna iinkqubo zobulungisa phambi kokuba urhulumente ahluthe abantu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla, kunye nokukhusela amalungelo asisiseko ekungeneleleni korhulumente
  • [[NTL:0] Inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho ikhusela – Iquka ilungelo lokunika isiluleko (Gideon v. Wainwright), iMiranda izilumkiso (iManda v. Arizona), kunye nomthetho wokukhetha (Mapp v. Ohio), iqinisekisa ukuphathwa kakuhle kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho
  • Ukhuseleko ekuphandeni okungaqikeleliyo nokuxhuzula [[FT:1]] – kuqinisekiswe ngoMphetho-Mda wesine kwaye ufuna imfuneko ezisekelwe kwisizathu esilindelekileyo sophando oluninzi

Amalungelo awayomigaqo engokwasemthethweni nje engekho ngqiqweni kodwa aluncedo ekukhuseleni ubomi bemihla ngemihla. Enoba kunxulumene nokunyanzeliswa komthetho, ukuqhuba inkqubo yemfundo, ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, okanye ukwenza izigqibo zobuqu, abemi bayangenelwa kukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko olumiselwa ngamatyala aphawula iziganeko eziphawulekayo.

Noko ke, amalungelo awangokuzikhusela kwaye afuna ukuzikhusela. Abami kufuneka bahlale benolwazi ngezokhuseleko zabo zomGaqo-siseko, baqonde xa ezo migaqo zokhuseleko ziphulwa, baze benze okuthile okufanelekileyo ukuthethelela amalungelo abo. Oku kungabandakanya ukufuna uncedo olusemthethweni, izikhalazo eziphengululayo, ukubandakanyeka kwizenzo zobugqwirha, okanye imibutho exhasayo ekhusela inkululeko yasekuhlaleni.

Ukuchazwa kwamalungelo eNkundla Ephakamileyo kuyaqhubeka kuguquka, kubonakalisa ukutshintsha kwemilinganiselo yentlalo, ubugcisa obutsha, neentanda-bulumko ezahlukileyo. Okuhlala kusoloko kuyimfuneko ukuba abemi baqonde amalungelo abo baze babe nenxaxheba kwinkqubo yedemokhrasi elawula umthetho womgaqo-siseko. Ngokufunda kwiimeko eziphawula ingqalelo nokuhlala bebandakanyeke kwiingxoxo zomGaqo-siseko zangoku, abemi banganceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba isithembiso senkululeko nokusesikweni kubo bonke baba yinto yokwenene kumntu ngamnye waseMelika.

Ulwazi olungakumbi ngamalungelo omgaqo-siseko kunye namatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo, tyelela i U.S. izibonelelo zemfundo, iziko loMgaqo-siseko wesizwe [, okanye Brennan Center yeJaji [. Le mibutho inika ubuncwane obubanzi bokuqonda indlela imiqathango yesizwe ekhusela ngayo inkululeko yomntu ngamnye kunye nomthetho weMelika.

Ukuqonda amatyala abalulekileyo asiyonto nje efundiswayo, kodwa lulwazi olubalulekileyo kumntu ngamnye ofuna ukukhusela inkululeko yakhe aze abe nenxaxheba ngokupheleleyo kwidemokhrasi yaseMerika. Ngokwazi iziseko ezisemthethweni zamalungelo omGaqo-siseko, abemi bayakwazi ukuwakhusela ngakumbi loo malungelo, bagcine urhulumente ephendulile, kwaye baqinisekise ukuba imigaqo yenkululeko nokusesikweni ihlala ihleli kwizizukulwana ezizayo.