Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini umi njengesiseko somgaqo wezolwaphulo-mthetho zaseMerika, ululela urhulumente ekubeni anikezele umntu kwityala eliphinda-phindiweyo okanye isigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho olufanayo. Nangona isiqinisekiso soMphengululo weNhlanu sithe ngqo ngaphakathi kwegunya elinye, ukusetyenziswa kwawo kuya kuba nzima ngokuphawulekayo xa inyathelo elifanayo libonisa amagunya angenayo karhulumente, urhulumente, kunye nolawulo lwesizwe. Ukuqonda indlela ephindwe kabini esebenza ngayo kule nkqubo ifanelekileyo esemthethweni efuna ukuxilongwa ngocoselelo lwemfundiso ephindiweyo yolawulo, isikhundla esikhethekileyo seenkundla zesizwe, kunye nomthetho olawulayo ochaza imidaba yelingo esisiseko. Eli nqaku linikela uhlaluko olugunya oluphindiweyo kumthetho osemthethweni, ukucacisa imigaqo esemthethweni, ukusetyenziswa nabani nabani nabani na olungele ukugqeqelelana kwemithetho yezaphuli-mthetho waseMelikan Amerika.

Yintoni Ingozi Ephindwe Kabini?

IReopardy Claus yeSigqibo sesihlanu soMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. inikela oku: “Akukho mntu... oya kubekwa esichengeni esifanayo ukuze abekwe kwingozi ephindwe kabini yobomi okanye ilungu elinye.” Olu khuselo lusebenza ekuchotshelweni kwetyala ngoMphetho-mvakaliso weshumi elinesine, ukuqinisekisa ukuba akukho namnye onokuphinda agwetywe ngenxa yetyala elifanayo, okanye ohlwaywe ngaphezu kokuba ulwaphulo-mthetho lunye kulawulo olulawulayo. Ili tyala lisebenza ekugqibeleni, likhusela ingcinezelo karhulumente xa kuvavanywa ngokuphindaphindiweyo, kwaye ligcina oovimba bezomthetho.

Umbuzo ongundoqo ophakamayo kwimibandela emininzi ekwahlulelwa kuyo u-'quaʹ' uvavanyo olufanayo "lolunye” lusebenza kwiinkosi ezahlukeneyo. Phantsi kwemfundiso yolawulo , izinto ezimbini ezizimeleyo ezizimeleyo `````ezinemithetho yezaphuli-mthetho ezimeleyo''' kwaye zinokugweba umntu omnye ngokokuziphatha okufanayo ngaphandle kokwaphula ingozi ephindwe kabini. Lo mgaqo, osekelwe kwingcamango yokuba umlawuli ngamnye umisela imithetho yakhe, uvunywe ngokuphindaphindiwe yinkundla ephakamileyo kwaye wenze isakhiwo sokuhlalutya urhulumente, urhulumente, inkundla yesizwe.

Imfundiso Yolongamo Lokumanyana Kwamaqabane: Urhulumente Omanyeneyo Norhulumente

Imfundiso yolongamo olubini ikholelwa ukuba urhulumente worhulumente kunye norhulumente ngamnye bazimele ngokwahlukeneyo. Ngenxa yoko, isenzo esinye singaphula umthetho worhulumente nowaserhulumenteni, kwaye igunya ngalinye lingagweba ngokwalo. Ityala lento ephawulayo elimisela lo mthetho kwixesha langoku lingu United States v. Lanza, 260.U.S. 377 (1922), apho iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba ukutshutshiswa ngokulandelelana ngurhulumente namagunya orhulumente akwisenzo esifanayo ayingqubanisi iJapy Claus Claus ePhondo ePhinda kabini kuba oorhulumente ababini bafumene amandla abo ahlukeneyo kwimithombo eyahlukeneyo.

Lo mgaqo waqinisekiswa ngokuqinisekisiweyo ku Heath v. Alabama, 474 U.S. 82 [85], apho iNkundla Ephakamileyo yachaza ngokucacileyo ukuba imfundiso ebini yolawulo “awulomthetho wobugcisa kodwa ngumthetho osisiseko woburhulumente." Phantsi kwale nkqubo, umntu ophanga ibhanki esemthethweni uqhuba ulwaphulo-mthetho lwezwe (uphango) nolwaphulo-mthetho (umva). Ukuba urhulumente uqala afumane ukuvalelwa, urhulumente worhulumente olawulayo usengaqhubeka egwetyelwa ngaphandle kokuphanga okuphindiweyo.

Ngoxa imfundiso ihlala iqinile, ibisoloko igxekwa kwaye incitshiswe. Umzekelo, “ukungacaci-cini” kunokunqanda ukumangalelwa kwesibini ukuba ityala lokuqala lomlawuli lisisigqubuthelo nje somlawuli wesibini. Noko ke, iNkundla ayifane isebenzise lo mahluko, kwaye imfundiso edibeneyo yolawulo ihlala ingumthetho omiselweyo olawula intlalo-ntlalo-ntle.

Uxanduva olusebenzisekayo loBukhosi beSizwe

Koogqirha, oku kuthetha ukuba umxhasi ongenatyala enkundleni yephondo usenokujamelana nezityholo zikarhulumente ezivela kwiziganeko ezisisiseko ezifanayo. Imizekelo ephawulekayo iquka amatyala alwela amalungelo abantu apho amatyala karhulumente aphumela ekugwetyweni kwetyala, kodwa kamva amagunya aseburhulumenteni azisa izityholo phantsi kwetyala lentiyo likarhulumente okanye lamalungelo abantu. Ngokufanayo, ukuthengiswa kweziyobisi, amatyala emipu, kunye namatyala okuqhatha ngokufuthi abangela uphando olunxulumeneyo lwamaqumrhu karhulumente kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente.

Omnye umphumo obalulekileyo kukusetyenziswa kwentshuwa-tyala karhulumente “ngokuyeka umva” xa iziphumo zikarhulumente zinganelisi. Abatshutshisi borhulumente bangathabatha ixesha elithile kwityala likarhulumente kodwa bangenele ukuba ityala liphela ngokugwetywa okanye ngesigwebo esilula. Le ntshukumo iphakamise inkxalabo ngokuqhatha komtshutshisi nokukhukuliseka kwesiphelo, nangona iNkundla isoloko ixhasa imfundiso njengenkalo eyimfuneko yolawulo lorhulumente.

Iinkundla Zesizwe: Ityala Elikhethekileyo Lolongamo Olwahlukileyo

Unxulumano phakathi kweenkundla zesizwe nezinye izilawuli luzisa ubunkimbinkimbi obungakumbi. Amazwe esizwe agqalwa njengamazwe axhomekeke kurhulumente norhulumente [[FLT: 1] aneemfuno zolawulo] olubalulekileyo . Olona mgangatho luye lwaguquka ngokuphawulekayo ngomthetho wesizwe nangemimiselo yeNkundla Ephakamileyo. Kwinjongo eziphindwe kabini, umba ophambili ungokuba iinkundla zesizwe ziphathwa “njengamagunya ahlukeneyo” koorhulumente norhulumente, okanye enoba zizixhobo eziphumelelayo zikarhulumente worhulumente.

Ngokwembali, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ebanjelwe iUnited States v. Wheeler, 435 U.S. 313 (188), ukuba isizwe norhulumente worhulumente bazimele ngokwahlukeneyo. Weeler [ , indoda yaseNavajo icela ityala kwityala lesizwe lokuziphatha okungalungelelaniyo kwaye kamva yatyholwa ngokusemthethweni ngenxa yokudlwengula okusekelwe kwihambo efanayo. INkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba ukutshutshiswa kwesizwe ayizange ibe ngumqobo kuba isizwe safumana ulawulo lwaso lobuzwe, kungekhona kwintsebenzi yaso yesizwe. Oku kusekwa oku kumiselwe kwiinkundla zesizwe ngeenjongo eziphindiweyo.

Noko ke, inkqubela elandelayo iyenze yaluxanduva olu cwangciso. uMthetho kunye noMthetho woMthetho we-Oldomu ka-2010 kunye nogonyamelo oluchasene namabhinqa [uMthetho woGunyaziso lobuRhulumente] ka-2013 lunyuse ukulawulwa kwesizwe ngamalungu angengomalungu esizwe kwiimeko ezithile, ngokukodwa ngenxa yogonyamelo kunye nogonyamelo lwamazwe asemaphandleni. Le mithetho iphakamise imibuzo yokuba ityalana maqela angengawo amaqela angoooorhulumente kufuneka asetyenziswe kusini na ekuvulweni kwemilo okanye ngokwemilo. [[FLT.FLT:] [FLT] kumthetho] . Brant[FLT], ingakumbi ngenxa yesigqibo sobuhlanga, u-uhlanga olungenayo. U.U.U.206666, iNkuqulu lwamanyeneyokulwayokuqwano lomthetho lweminyelele, ukusetyenziswa kwemiba yemiba yemibangowalensi ye

Isiphumo se [[QLT: 0] United States v. Lara[[FLT: 1]

Elinye lamatyala abalulekileyo abandakanya ulawulo lwesizwe kunye nengozi ephindwe kabini lilo iUnited States v.Lara, 541 U.S. 193 (2004). Lara, ummangalelwa wayelilungu leLake Mother Sioux ne-U.S. ummi. Wamangalelwa yisizwe ngenxa yokuhlasela umphathi wesizwe yaye kamva ngurhulumente womthetho olawulayo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yayikholelwa ukuba ityala alivalelwanga yingozi ephinda-phindeneyo kuba oorhulumente besizwe babeziintloko zolawulo. Inkundla yagxininisa ukuba iBhunga lolawulo lwesizwe linokuchaza ulawulo lwesizwe ngomthetho, kwaye isebenzisa igunya lesizwe.

Isigqibo .LA sibalaselisa umahluko obalulekileyo: ngoxa oorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente bengamagunya alinganayo, isimo seenkundla zesizwe singahluka-hluka kuxhomekeka ekubeni ummangalelwa lilungu lesizwe nakumagunya athile eququzeleli emkhosini. Abamangalelwa abangengomalungu esizwe. Imbono exhasweyo kukuba iinkundla zolawulo ezingengomalungu ohlanga ziyahlukana. Ezinye iinkundla ezisezantsi zibuza enoba amatyala eejajini angengomalungu aphantsi kwemithetho egunya aqinisiweyo afanele abekwe kusinikwe kurhulumente, akhuphe iingcebiso eziphindaphindeneyo. Ngoku, imbono exhaphakileyo kukuba iinkundla zesizwe zihlala zise ziseziko lobusweni eziphindiweyo, kodwa umthetho awulungiswangagqibekanga ngokupheleleyo.

Ityala Elinokuphawulwa Namanyathelo Asemthethweni

Ngaphaya Lanza, u-Heath, kunye Lara[, ezinye izithintelo ezininzi zibumba ukusetyenziswa kwengozi eziphindwe kabini ngaphaya kolawulo. Ukuqonda le mizekeliso inikeza umzobo ochube kakhulu womhlaba osemthethweni.

Gguedge v. United States (209)

Gragg v. United States, 587 __U-U.S., iNkundla Ephakamileyo yayiqinisekisa ngokuchanekileyo imfundiso ebini yolawulo kwityala apho ummangalelwa ogwetyelwe ulwaphulo-mthetho olunxulumene nomyazi kwinkundla yelizwe wayegwetyelwe ngaphambili yimo ye-Alabama ngenxa yehambo efanayo. Inkundla yakwala impikiswano yokuba le mfundiso imele ibekwe phantsi kwemithetho, ibambe ukuba umbhalo kaVini Jeopardy Clauslaus nentsingiselo yantland ivumela abalawuli abagwetyiweyo abahlukeneyo ukuba bohlwaye isenzo esifanayo. Umthetho owenziwe phantsi komthetho ongomnye u-Fogravity u-ok) u-F.[3]

Puerto Rico v. Sanchez Valle (2016)

Umahluko obalulekileyo ubandakanya ii-odemistes zelizwe. i-Puerto Rico v. iSanchez Valle, 579 U.S. 59.2029, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi iNkundla ePhakamileyo ayibohlulwanga ngenxa yenjongo eziphindiweyo kuba igunya lePuerto Rico lithathwe kumthombo omnye wesizwe (U.S. Constitution kunye neKhonkrather (206), kunemvelaphi ezimeleyo yolongamo. Oku kubonisa ukuba ulawulo olumabini lwemfundiso luxhomekeke ekubeni ngaba isiko esiquququ sifumana amandla aso kusini na kwizinto ezizimeleyo, ezingekho mthethweni. Uhlaluko lweenko lwezizwe luchaziwe ngenxa yokuba ulawulo oluzimeleyo.

Izicelo Nezinto Ezikhethekileyo

Ukuqonda le migaqo kubalulekile kumagqwetha akhusela ityala, abatshutshisi nabagwebi abasingatha amatyala anezityholo ezininzi. Kuvela iziphumo ezingundoqo:

  • Amatyala anzima : Abaphathi bomanyano bangalinda ityala likarhulumente ukuze bagqibe phambi kokufaka izityholo, basebenzisa kakubi ulawulo olubini ukufumana isiqinisekiso okanye isigwebo esiqatha.
  • Ukuthelekisa: Ummangalelwa angajongana noxinzelelo lokucela ityala kwelinye icala ukuphepha ityala kwelinye icala elinye. Ii-Attorney kufuneka zicebise abaxhasi ngomngcipheko wokungxengxeza okubini xa kucetywa.
  • [I-CParacal estomal: Ngelixesha ingozi ephindwe kabini ingaba yindawo yetyala lesibini, i- idictrine yembambano yemposiso [ (ikhompyutha ebhaliweyo) (ikhofital ebrojileempli) ingasebenza ngaphaya kwemithetho. Ukuba imbamba yenyani yagqitywa kuvavanyo lokuqala (umz. ummangaliso akasenzanga isenzo), ukuze ukufumana ibophelelo kwiseko yesibini eqhubekekayo phantsi komthetho omiselwe njenge-''. . SFON[FLT][5], 396], u-US670). Kodwa ke, ukusetyenziswa kwe-e-empliter edrompty.
  • Imingeni enzima e-juristical: Kwinkundla yesizwe, ummangalelwa angaphikisa ngelithi isizwe asinagunya phezu kwamalungu okanye ukuba ingtshutshiso linyathelo elide lemeko yorhulumente, elixhokonxa iingozi eziphindiweyo. Olo celomngeni lufuna uhlalutyo lobucukubhede begunya lemithetho kunye nobume bamalungu esizwe.

Kukwakho nenye into elinganiselweyo apho ityala lesibini livalwa kwanaphakathi kwabalawuli abahlukeneyo:

  • [[FLT: 0] ingxengxezo yetyala: Ukuba ingtshutshiso yokuqala yayisisixhobo nje sesibini, eyesibini ingathintelwa. Oku kunxaxhi kubhaliswe kwidicta kodwa kunqabile ukusetyenziswa.
  • Ihambo yeGosa [[FLT: 0]. Ukuba ityala lesibini liziswa elukholweni olubi okanye ukukhathaza ummangalelwa, inkqubo efunekayo ingayivala, nangona le ingeyompikiswano ephindwe kabini ngo-se.
  • Ibhari yokwalathisa : Eminye imimiselo yorhulumente, enjenge inkqubo yepethite [ (Indawo yemithetho yobulungisa yangaphakathi), inqanda ukutshutshiswa kwezwe emva kokuvavanywa ngaphandle kokuba iimeko ezithile zihlangatyeziwe. Inkqubo yePetrate ayibopheki ngokusemthethweni kodwa ngumgaqo weDOJ ofuna ugunyaziso kumncedisi ofanelekileyo u-Attorney General phambi kokuba iqalise i-groot.

Indima Yomthetho Wamazwe Ngamazwe Nokutshutshiswa Kwamazwe Asemzini

Nangona iingxubusho eziphindaphindiweyo, zikwavela nakumongo wolwaphulo-mthetho lwamanye amazwe. I-United States iqhele ukungaziqondi iinkolelo zamanye amazwe okanye ukugwetywa njengemiqathango yamakhaya ekwakungavunyelwa ukuba ithwaliswe phantsi kwemfundiso yolawulo olubini, njengoko izilawuli zezizwe ngezizwe zahlukene. Noko ke, ezinye izivumelwano kunye nezivumelwano zokongezelelekileyo zibandakanya “iiibhiya ezikwisigqeba eziphindwe kabini" (ingozi ephindwe kabini) iingxelo ezinokuthi zithintelwe ukutshutshiswa emva kovavanyo lwangaphandle lwehambo efanayo. Umzekelo, iNdibano Ifakela iSchengente iSgen Region kunye nezivumelwano ezithile zomthetho ezithe kratya ezithiweyo zinikela iingcebiso eziphindwe kabini kwiintlanganiso zomqondiso. Kwi-U.S., ukungahoywa komthetho jikelele womthetho-omatiko kuthetha ukuba umgrobhexe welizwe angathinteli womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho wangaphandle womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho wolwaphulo-mthetho owe mazwe mazwe mazwe aw

Ukuchaza Iinkalo Ezintsonkothileyo: Owona Mkhwa Ulungileyo Kuogqirha

Ngokunikwa kolu tshintsho lungachatshazelwayo maxa wambi, iziphumo zomngcipheko ophindiweyo, oogqirha mabasebenzise ezi ndlela zilandelayo:

  • uchazo lokuqala : Ngexesha lokutya, qinisekisa ukuba ihambo ingangqubana norhulumente, nombuso, kunye/okanye umthetho wesizwe. Lungiselela ukuba ngaba nawaphi na amatyala angaphambili aye enziwa kwezinye iindawo.
  • Uxwebhu lwangaphambili : Fumana imibhalo eqinisekisiweyo yezahlulelo, iikhowudi, kunye nemiyalelo yabachopheli-mgunyathi nakweliphi na ityala langaphambili. La maxwebhu abalulekile ekunyuseni iingozi eziphindwe kabini okanye ukuqinisekisa ukuba i-estomple.
  • Ukuququzelelana neengcali: Kwityala elibandakanya iinkundla zesizwe, jonga igqwetha elinolwazi olukhethekileyo kumthetho wesizwe okanye wesizwe samaIndiya ukuvavanya ulawulo lwezibonelelo.
  • Isibongozo se-Strategic [: Xa umxhasi ejongene neengtshutshiso ezibini ezinokwenzeka, qwalasela ukuxoxa ngesigqibo sehlabathi lonke esigquma zonke izityholo ezinokwenzeka kuzo zonke imimandla. Izivumelwano ezinjalo zinqabile kodwa zinokwenzeka xa abatshutshisi belungelelanisa.
  • Imiphuhliso yomthetho ekhupha amandla: Ingqungquthela iyaqhubeka icombulula umlinganiselo wolawulo lwesizwe solwaphulo-mthetho. Ityala lakutshanje licebise ukunyuswa kwegunya lesizwe phezu kwamalungu angengawo, elinokuguqula uhlaziyo lwengozi eziphindwe kabini. Hlala usaziswe ngemithombo efana neConference yesizwe yeSizwe ye-Gageislatures[ kunye ne- Isebe le-Ofice yeJastile ye-Jastial Justity .

Isiphelo

Ubungozi obuphindwe kabini kurhulumente worhulumente, wesizwe, kunye nowezi nkundla zesizwe bubonakalisa isakhiwo esintsonkothileyo solongamo lwaseMelika. Imfundiso ephindiweyo yolawulo ivumela ukutshutshiswa ngokulandelelanayo ngezilawuli ezizimeleyo, kodwa ukusetyenziswa kwayo kwiinkundla zesizwe kubunjwa bubuzwe obukhethekileyo njengomthetho wesizwe ozimeleyo, ongaphambi kolawulo, uthetha ukuba abasebenzi bamele bahlale bephaphile. Ngokuqonda izicwangciso ezingomthetho, izikhokelo, kunye nobuchule obusebenzayo obucaciswe apha, iingcali zezomthetho-ograficial zenzayo ziyakwazi ukujika ityala eliphindiweyo nokunika abaxhasi babo. [F3] [4]