Ukuqonda ukuhambelana kwemithetho yeRhulumente echasene neMiphaka namaSebe oLonwabo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe simbombo yesiseko solawulo lwezithintelo ezikhusela oorhulumente baseMerika ukuba bangamangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yabo ecacileyo. Kubantu abonzakeleyo kwimijikelezo yepaki, kwisebe lokuzihlaziya elinamanzi, okanye nakwesiphi na isibonelelo solawulo sikarhulumente, le mfundiso isoloko inika umqobo wokuqala nowoyikekayo. Ukuchana kwemibutho yorhulumente kunye namasebe okuzonwabisa kufuneka uqonde ngokuchanekileyo xa ide isetyenziswe, indlela enokuthi isetyenziswe ngayo, nendlela engaqhelekanga ekhoyo. Eli nqaku linikela uvavanyo olubanzi lwezokhuselo lwendalo kwi-ligioktroviss, ngokuqwalasela intela ngokusuka kwimizaliso yeminyango yezonganiso ye-omatilitive neyo, ukunikela ukhokelo olusebenzayo kumagqwetha nabaluleki-mthetho abafuna ukusetyenziswa kulo mthetho.

Isiseko soLawulo oluPhakamileyo lweRhulumente

Imvelaphi Yembali Nendlela Yokusebenza Yale Mihla

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzimelanga ekuzimeleni ibuyele kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, apho isibhengezo esithi “ukumkani akanakwenza nto iphosakeleyo” sithintele isuti nxamnye nesiBhuno. EUnited States, uHlaliso-Mpawulo-siseko [ kuMgaqo-siseko oqinisekisiweyo wokukhusela ulawulo loburhulumente, okhusela iisuti kurhulumente ngamaqela azimeleyo enkundleni yenkundla yephondo. Noko ke, imfundiso inwebelele ngaphaya koMthetho wePhondo yeshumi elinesithobathu leNtshona Koloni; kwakhona igxininiswe kumthetho kunye neesakhiwo sombuso sombuso wonke. Namhlanje, ukhuselo olulawulayo alukhuselwanga kuphela urhulumente ngokwawo kodwa kwana abameli bawo, amasebe, namagosa asebenza kwimisebenzi yabo egunya.

Okubalulekileyo kukuba, ukukhusela ukulawulwa kwemithetho akunanto ipheleleyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba iimeko zingavumelana, yaye iNkundla isenokuvumela ukukhuselwa kwemeko yesizwe ngokungenayo phantsi kwamandla athile omgaqo-siseko, anjengokunyanzelisa uLawulo lweMpanziso-Mpanzi we-145. Ukongezelela, amazwe amaninzi aye amisela izenzo ezithi ngokwenxalenye zithintele ukunqanda ukuthintelwa, zivumele ukumangalelwa phantsi kweemeko ezithile kwaye kubekelwe imida echaziweyo.

Umanyano/umanyano. Ulawulo oluphezulu lweRhulumente

Ngelixesha iFederal Tort Athions Act (FTCA) iphazamisa ukhuseleko lwezobungangamsha lukarhulumente wase United States kumatort amaninzi awenziwe ngabasebenzi besizwe, ukhuseleko lombuso lusebenza ngokwahlukileyo. Oku kuthintelwa kwemithetho nokubekwa kwemithetho yezolawulo oluphezulu, ukwenza umsebenzi wemithetho ngaphaya kwelizwe. Umzekelo, uRhulumente waseKhalifoniyani umisela iinkqubo ezineenkcukacha zokukhonzisa urhulumente, ngelixa iTexas igcina imfundiso engqongqo ngakumbi ephantsi kwemiqatha echazanti ethile. Oku kuyingozi xa kucaciswa ngokuchasene ne-paki yemihlala kunye nesebe lokuzonwabisa, njengoko umthetho osebenzayo uxhomekeke kumgaqo apho kuthelela khona.

Inkcitho yeNkcubeko kwiLifa leMveli

Izinto Eziqhelekileyo Ezithethwayo Ngokuchasene Nemizi - mveliso Neenjongo Zokuzonwabisa

Iipaki zelizwe kunye namasebe okuzonwabisa ajongene nokulawula iindawo ezininzi zomhlaba kawonke-wonke, kuquka iindawo zokulala, iindawo zokumisa iikampu, unxweme, iindawo zokudlala, imimandla yemidlalo, kunye namaziko okumangalela aqhelekileyo ajongene nezi zixhobo.

  • [[UMTL: 0] Utyibiliko kunye nengozi eziwayo kwindlela yokuhamba, iindlela zokuhamba, okanye kwiindawo zokupaka.
  • Iziganeko zokujinga-jinga kumanxweme onxweme, kumachibi, okanye amaqula okuqubha.
  • [[UMTL:0] Amashwana asuka kwizixhobo zokuzonwabisa njengezakhiwo zemidlalo, ukunyuka kodonga, okanye iislide zamanzi.
  • Iingozi zeVehicle ezibandakanya izithuthi ezizinziswe ngurhulumente okanye kwiimeko eziyingozi zendlela ngaphakathi kwipaki.
  • iPremisess yetyala yeemeko eziyingozi kumaziko andwendwe, kwindlu yangasese, okanye kwimimandla yepikiniki.
  • Iingozi zamanzi kunye nengozi zangaphandle ngenxa yokungakhathali kogcino lwedokisi okanye ukungaphumeleli ukulumkisa ngeengozi.

Kwimeko nganye, umlobi kufuneka aqale alwe nokuba uthintelo lwezokhuselo luxhomekeke ngokupheleleyo kusini na okanye uqobo luyasebenza.

Indima yemisebenzi ye-Rhulumente.

Umahluko obalulekileyo kumthetho wokukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu uphakathi kwemisebenzi yoburhulumente kunye nemisebenzi engundoqo [[FLT:]. Imisebenzi yorhulumente yenziwa kuphela ukuze kungenelwe uluntu, ngeli lixa imisebenzi ye-proprite enokwenziwa ngamashishini obuqu. Kumazwe amaninzi, ukukhuselwa kusebenza kwimisebenzi karhulumente; xa umeli worhulumente ekwimisebenzi ye-proprietary, isenokungeniswa njengayo nayiphi na into ekhoyo.

Kumaziko olungiselelo kunye namasebe okuzonwabisa karhulumente, lo mahluko udla ngokuphikiswa. Umzekelo, ukusebenza kwepaki yombuso kudla ngokuthathwa njengomsebenzi karhulumente ngenxa yokuba kusebenza uwonke-wonke kwindawo egcinelwe urhulumente. Noko ke, amanye amaphondo akholelwa ukuba ukusebenzisa ikhorafi, ukuvalwa, okanye ukuqengqeleka kwezindlu zokulala kwipaki kungumsebenzi wepropritary. Isiphumo setyala singaxhomekeka ekubeni umsebenzi okhoyo uthathwa njengoweproprietary, ngaloo ndlela imo yokukhutshwa kwemeko yokuzikhusela. Icebo eliluncedo lokuqonda lo mahluko ngumgangatho we- iCornell Lengcaciso-mthetho yolwazi lwe-Gregiography , elixubusha ngorhulumente-proptomymy.

IMiqathango yeNkqutyana enguMongami: IMithetho-siseko

Izenzo Zezenzo Zezibhengezo Zesizwe

Phantse lonke iphondo limisele ithe yenza into yokuba ukhuseleko lobungangamsha lwemiqathango ethile. Le mithetho ivumela ukumangalelwa kwamaqumrhu karhulumente ngenxa yokungakhathali okufana noko komntu wabucala, ephantsi kophoso lomonakalo kunye nemfuno ye-procedrial. Umzekelo, uRhulumente u-Act ufuna ukuba kubekwe ityala kurhulumente phakathi kweenyanga ezintandathu zomonakalo. Isaziso esifanayo sikho kumazwe afana neNew York (esithiwawayakho ) ngeentsuku ezingama-90 (iminyaka emithathu kodwa ngesaziso seminyaka emithathu) kunye ne-Texaken (iiiincowa).

Ukuba ummangaleli akaphumeleli ngokungqongqo ekuthobeleni ezi mfuneko zesaziso, iqhayiya lidla ngokuvalwa, nokuba urhulumente ugcine imeko eyingozi. Lo mgibe wesinyithi wenza ukuba nabani na owenzakele kwipaki karhulumente adibane negqwetha ngoko nangoko ukuze afumanise ixesha elifanelekileyo lokugqiba ixesha.

Ukusebenzisa Imithetho Yokuzihlaziya: Imilinganiselo Ekhethekileyo

Ukongeza kukhuseleko oluzimeleyo, amajelo asoloko esebenzisa imimiselo elinganisela ityala labemi abawenza umhlaba wabo ufumaneke ngeenjongo zokuzonwabisa ngaphandle kokuphatha. Le mithetho, ekuqaleni yenzelwe ukukhuthaza abemi abazimeleyo ukuba bavule impahla yabo ukuze bazizonwabise, isetyenziswe kwimithetho yokulawula iipaki kunye. Ngaphantsi kwale mithetho, urhulumente usenokuba ukhuselekile kwiingozi ezenzeka ngexesha lokuzonwabisa, ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente usebenze ngenkathazo ezona zinto zinzima okanye ngokuziphethe kakubi. Umzekelo, [[FLT:] izibophelelo eziqhelekileyo zaseNew York iiNjongo zokuzonwabisa, zinokufunyanwa kwi-[FOLD [9] 9-3][FOLD], kuquka ne-moduralves, ukusetyenziswa kwezothulophulo, ukusetyenziswa kwe-enqanawa, ukurhweba, ukuphothatha, ukusetyenziswa kwe-Anbolophu-F]

Le mithetho isoloko isebenza ekukhuseleni ukhuseleko lwezikhuseli, idala umaleko ophindiweyo wokukhusela iipaki zikarhulumente. Umxhasi kufuneka oyise ibhanti jikelele yokhuseleko lomzimba kunye nesixhobo sokuzonwabisa sokuzikhusela, esidla ngokufuna ukubonakalisa ukungakhathaleli okanye ukungaphumeleli ngeqhinga ukulumkisa ngeengozi ezifihlakeleyo.

Iinkalo Ezikhethekileyo Kumanyano Olulawulayo Kwimizila

Iintlawulo zomGaqo-siseko kunye neCandelo lowe - 1983

Enye yamalungelo abalulekileyo okhuseleko lobungangamsha angundoqo ivela xa ummeli othe wavuma ukuba uthethelelwa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko phantsi 42 U.S. . . ngenxa yokwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko okanye amalungelo e-state. Phantsi kweSigqibo solawulo lwe-145th, iKhomishini inesithintelo sombuso esimiselwe urhulumente esimiselwe ukhuseleko lwezo zonke, u-Umthetho othe wawafumana iingxelo zokulwela amalungelo asemthethweni, njengayo, inkqubela elinganayo, okanye ukuphululwa okungekho ngqiqweqweni. Noko ke, [[FLT:] V.V. V. V. iSebe leMichigan Lamapolisa [[FLT:], 491], 491], U.S (199), iNkuphekadelwa kwe-gromente, i-odwa yi-gronawabo ephantsi kwe-Ethenjiweyo, i-Ethenjiweyo, i-Ethenjiso i-Ethe , i-Ethenjika yowi

Noko ke, abasebenzi basepaki ngabanye batyholwa ngokuziphatha okubi okungathethekiyo qha qha qha, njengokunyanzelwa ngamapolisa asepakini, ukunyanzeliswa kwemithetho ye-paki yolwaphulo-mthetho, okanye ukungakhathaleli ngemposiso iingozi ezaziwayo .

Imfundiso yeWaiver- NgokuyiConduct

Ezinye iinkundla ziye zaqonda ukuba urhulumente unokuwuphazamisa ngokupheleleyo umgangatho wokuzikhusela ngokungena kwihambo ethile okanye ngokungena kwizivumelwano. Umzekelo, ukuba isebe lepaki lifumana ityala le-inshorensi lomngcipheko othile, amanye amagunya athi urhulumente ukhuselekile ngokomlinganiselo we-inshorensi. Ngokufanayo, ukuba ipaki ingena kwi-rente yomthengisi wabucala, ithetha ukuba ivela kwimisebenzi yomthengisi isenokungakhuselwa yi-inshorensi. Noko ke, le yimbono encinane, kwaye amazwe amaninzi afuna i-paration ecacileyo.

Ilizwe elinguFederal kunye neFTCA

Kubalulekile ukuphawula ukuba iipaki ezininzi zesizwe zilawulwa yiNkonzo ye-National Park, umbutho wesizwe. iMithetho echasene ne-packo yesizwe iye yawa phantsi kwe iFederal Tort Intees (FTCA), enika intelekelelo epheleleyo yokhuseleko lobukhosi ebangelwa yizenzo ezingakhathaliyo okanye ezingalunganga zabasebenzi belizwe, ethobela imiqathango enye njengecala. IFTCA iquka okungaqhelekanga, njengokungalinganiyo, okukhusela izigqibo ezenziwa kumgangatho wenkqubo. Kwiinkcukacha ze-FTCA, ithetha ukuba ityala, [FFTPTP] inikezela ngemithetho yezakhono ze-FT:[5]

Izakhono zeSebe leMigangatho yeSizwe

Phawula Iimfuno Zokuxela

Njengoko kuchaziwe, phantse onke amaphondo kufuneka afumaneke ngokomthetho obekelwe indawo elungileyo, ingcaciso yento efunekayo kunye nombutho wesizwe okanye igqwetha likarhulumente phambi kokufaka ityala. Isaziso kufuneka siquke iinkcukacha ezicacileyo: umhla, ixesha, nendawo yesiganeko; inkcazelo yengozi; izenzo zomonakalo eziceliweyo zobungakhathali; kunye nobungakanani bomonakalo obufunwayo. Ukungaphumeleli ukunikezela iinkcukacha ezaneleyo zinokuba nesiphumo sokurhoxiswa. Umzekelo, i-vaneda v. Isebe le Parks ne Cooperation[FLT] [iiiNkqulot], inkundla igxothomatilo ayikhange ichazwe ngokunelisayo.

Imilinganiselo yexesha lokunikela isaziso idla ngokufutshane-----ukunciphisa ukusuka kwiintsuku ezingama-30 ukuya kwezithandathu zenyanga, kwaye inyanzelekile ngokungqongqo. Ukungalingani (ukugqiba ixesha lokugqiba ukwenza into elungileyo) akufane kunikwe. Abafaki-sicelo nabo kufuneka baqaphele ukuba amanye amazwe afuna isaziso esahlukileyo kwigqwetha lengingqi yengingqi, kunye nesaziso esahlukileyo kwingingqi okanye kwisixeko sasekuhlaleni ukuba ipaki isetyenzwe ngumasipala.

Imilinganiselo Yokwahlula

Kwanasemva kokuba isaziso esifanelekileyo sifakiwe, ixesha lokuqalisa ukumangalelwa lisoloko lifutshane kunommiselo oqhelekileyo wokwenzakala kobuqu. Kumaphondo amaninzi, i-tort ithatha inyathelo lommiselo wemiqathango kunyaka omnye okanye nangaphantsi emva kokuba isaziso sikhatyiwe okanye sikhatyiwe. Umzekelo, , isuti mayiqalelwe kwisithuba sonyaka omnye neentsuku ezingama-90 emva kokuba ibhaliwe (ayiyo emva kokuba iphawuliwe).

Ukukhutshwa Konyango Lolawulo

Amanye amaphondo afuna ukuba abamangaleli bakhuphe amanyathelo okulawula ngaphambi kokubhenela kwiinkundla. Umzekelo, iPaki neSebe loNcedo laseKhalifoniya linenkqubo yangaphakathi ekufuneka ilandelwe ngaphambi kokuba kubekwe ityala. Ngokufanayo, njengeFlorida, ifuna ukuba ityala linikelwe kwiSebe leeNkonzo zezeMali ukuze kuhlolwe yaye kuhlawulwe iziko. Iinkundla ngokuqhelekileyo zinyanzelisa ukudinwa ngamandla, ziphelise ukumangalelwa ngaphambi kwexesha.

Uguquguquko lwemeko-ludidi kunye nophawu lonobumba

EKhalifoniya

I-Governments Access (Gov’t Code 76 810 et seq.) inika isithinteli-sogoso solawulo lwezikhundla ezininzi zetort, kodwa ineemfuno ezingqongqo ze-procensical. Okubalulekileyo, kwi- isiko leNkundla ePhakamileyo (Bode)[Bodel][FLT , iNkundla ePhakathi-kamileyo yaseKhalifoniya ixhase umthetho othi ukungaphumeleli kwengxelo yexesha likarhulumente isithintela yokusebenza. I-Rhulumente isebenzise nento elinganiselweyo eyingozi yempahla kawonke, esoloko ivela kumongomo womhlaba.

New York

INkundla yeZibheno yeNkundla yaseNew York inikela ukuba iNkundla yeZibheno ifanele ibekelwe ityala letorts ngendlela efanayo nomntu wabucala, kodwa iisuti kufuneka zingeniswe kwiNkundla yeeMpatho, hayi kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ukusebenzisa kwelizwe ukuzonwabisa kunika ukhuseleko oluphangaleleyo lwemisebenzi emininzi yepaki, kodwa iNkundla yezibheno ibhalelwe ngaphandle ngenxa yokungakhathali okugqithisileyo kunye neemeko apho urhulumente athengela umrhumo. Ferress v. IsiXeko saseNew Rochellelk, inkundla yayikholelwa ukuba ukukhusela ukusetyenziswa komdlalo akusetyenziswa kokuzonwabisa kusetyenziswa xa urhulumente ebhanki.

I-Texas

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lweTexas lulawulwa nguMthetho weTort Access, ophazamisa ukhuseleko lwezityholo ezivela ekusetyenzisweni kwezithuthi, iziphene, kunye nomonakalo obangelwa ziimeko ezithile zezinto. Kwi-paki yelizwe, isiphene seendawo kufuneka silinganiselwe: ummangali-mali kufuneka abonise ukuba urhulumente unesiphazamiso sokwenyani esidala kwaye imeko ibangele ingozi enzima. [FT] i-Taxs Office of Parks ne Wildlifev v. Miranda, iNkundla yakwala iTexalm ephezulu isithiya ukuba uyakwazi ukutshona epakini, ilawula ukuba imeko yokungangeni kwelizwe lokuzinziswa kobomi ikukulungiselela.

IFlorida

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lweFlorida lunganikwa kuphela umlinganiselo onikezelwa yi-Fororia Tort Actiess Act (.. 768.28, Flaa. Stat), echola iindleko zomonakalo kwii-R340 000 umntu ngamnye kwaye ii-R340 000 ngesiganeko ngasinye. Umthetho ufuna ukuba isaziso esibhaliweyo setyala sinikelwe kwisebe kwiminyaka emithathu kunye neSebe lezeMali-mali. Iinkundla ze-Florida zibambelele kwelokuba ukusebenza kwe-paki ngumsebenzi karhulumente, kodwa ityala linokubakho ukwenzela ukugcinwa okungakhathaliyo ukuba urhulumente waphula umthetho wokugcina izakhiwo ezikhuselekileyo. Okubalulekileyo, “ukusebenzisa i-Florida kunika ukhuseleko lwengozi kwimisebenzi yokuzonwabisa ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uthengenze ityala lokungena okanye ukwenza ngokungakhathali.

Iingqwalasela ezifanelekileyo kwiiNkcukacha nakwiiNkcukacha

Kubantu Abaqhelekileyo: Ukwakha Ityala Phezu Kwako Nje Ukungavisisani

Xa umxhasi wonzakala kwipaki okanye kwipropati yokuzonwabisa karhulumente, inyathelo lokuqala kukubonisa iqumrhu elichanekileyo likarhulumente kunye nezenzo ezisetyenziswayo ze-tort. Icebiso kufuneka likhawuleze lihlole imfuneko zesaziso kwaye lifake isaziso sokuthobela ngokukhawuleza. Lungiselele ukuba ipaki ifuna umrhumo wokungena okanye i-rejista yorhwebo, njengokuba oku kungachaphazela indlela yokuzihlaziya. Jonga ubungqina bokungakhathaleli okugqithisileyo / ngokungahoyi izikhalazo ezaziwayo eziyingozi, ngokokuba abaxhaphazi abaninzi bafuna ukunga kakhulu ukugqogqwa ukuze bagqogqwa abasebenzi ngabanye ngengozi. Ngaphezu koko, qwalasela ukuba izinto ezithethwayo zinokuziswa kumntu ngamnye ngenxa ye-gcontrort okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho, nangona le ndlela inokuba inemiqobo yayo imiqobo (g., efanelekayo).

Icebiso lokhuselo: Ukuqinisekisa ukuba umanyano luyasebenza

Isiluleko sokhuselo lwemiphaka nesebe lokuzonwabisa kufuneka sihlolisise isaziso sokuzibanga kwesiphene: ukulahleka kolwazi, ukungaphelelwa lixesha, okanye iinkcukacha ezinganele. Ifayile intshukumo yokulahla isekelwe kwizixhobo zokuzikhusela kwikhompyutha kwangoko, ngaphambi kokufunyanwa, ukuphepha iindleko ezingeyomfuneko zemali. Xa i-tort yephondo lisenza isenzo sokunika umenzi wetyala, iphikisa ukuba isaziso sibekwe kwimida ekhethekileyo (umz., umsebenzi wecebo, ukusebenzisa ukuzonwabisa, okanye ukuphawula umlinganiselo osekelwe kwisakhono). Kwakhona kubalulekile ukuqinisekisa ukuba i-patoff ayiphumeleli kwiindlela zolawulo. Xa kuchazwa ngemiqathangondona, iqinisekisa ukuba naluphi na umgwebo okanye ukuhlalisa akuyidluli imida ye-statio.

Utyekelo Lwakutshanje Neenkqubano Zexesha Elizayo

Ubuchule nokungagqibeki

Ngexesha lesifo se-COVID-19, amaphondo amaninzi amisela umthetho onika ukukhuselwa kwetyala kumashishini kunye namaqumrhu karhulumente engozi enxulumene nentsholongwane. Amanye amaphondo andisa lo khuselo kwiipaki zikarhulumente. Umzekelo, iCalifornia’s AB 161020 [2020] yanikela ukhuseleko lokwexeshana kwizinto ezikhoyo zikawonke-wonke, kuquka iipaki, ukwenzela ukuchanabeka kwe-COVIID-19. Ngoxa inkoliso yale mithetho yexeshanaye iye yaphela, imiqondiso yokuba iindlu zolawulo zikulungele ukwandisa ukulondolo lwezimonga.

Ukutshintsha Kwemozulu Neenkqubo Zotyando Epakini

Njengokuba ukutshintsha kwemozulu kwandisa ubuninzi bemililo yelanga, izikhukula, neziganeko zemozulu ezimandundu, iipaki zikarhulumente zijongene nomngcipheko omtsha. Umzekelo, ukuba ipaki ayiphumeleli ukuvala umzila ngexesha lesilumkiso esibomvu kunye nomlilo obangela umonakalo, abamangali bangaphikisa ngokuthi urhulumente umele ukuba umele ulumkise. Noko ke, umsebenzi owenzelweyo ungakhusela izigqibo malunga nokuba kunini ekuvaleni imikhondo. Iinkundla ziyangqubana nezi miba, kwaye ukukhuselwa kwexesha elizayo kuya kubumba imida yokuzikhusela kulo mongo.

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwelizwe luhlala lungumqobo onamandla wokulwa nemisebenzi yamakhaya okanye ukungqubana nomthetho-siseko we-paki, kodwa akunzima ukumelana. Iziphumo eziphumelelayo zifuna ukuqonda okunzulu kwemithetho yetyala yetyala, imigaqo yesaziso, ingqinelanisa ngokungqongqo iimfuno zokonwabisayo, inkxalabo yokuhamba ngobuchule besebenzisa imimiselo nezinye izinto ezingaqhelekanga, kwaye ngamanye amaxesha iingxoxo ezimayela nemisebenzi ye-propritimethom. Ama-attorney amele zombini oonontlalo-ntle kunye nabamangalelwa kufuneka bahlale behleli kwimithetho ecacileyo nezigqibo zenkundla, njengoko umthetho uhamba kancinci kodwa uneziphumo eziphawulekayo. Ngokuhlalutya okuziko, i-Geviko lobuliso lomthetho lungalawula ngokunempumelelo, luphepha imigibe yemiqobo, kwaye luphumele nje iziphumo zemali ekwindawo ephantsi kwethafafanti okanye igcine inkundla. [R.N.1]