Ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo lwemeko-ntle yesizwe singumgaqo-siseko wemeko-ntle yaseMelika, okhusela kwiimeko ezininzi zetyala lephondo ngaphandle kwemvume. Isekelwe kwiSinyuko seshumi elinesithoba kunye nomthetho oqhelekileyo owenziwe ixesha elide, le mfundiso igcina ukuzilawula koorhulumente besizwe kwaye ikhusela imfuno yabo emalini yabo. Kodwa xa iingozi zempilo yoluntu ziphakama , okanye iziganeko zendalo, okanye iziganeko zezobuphekula-athol' zendalo, zimele zisebenze ngokukhawuleza ukukhusela abemi bazo. Amanyathelo afana nemiyalelo yokuzikhusela, izithintelo, kunye nemiqathango yokuhamba ibangela iimbambano ezingo-mthetho ezingomthetho ezingomeleyo kunye nemfuno zokhuseleko phakathi kwemeko-ograli, ukunqanda kwemeko-ok anokunyuka kwemeko-octive: abantu ngabanye ukuququlisa amalungelo abo ngexesha likaxakeka kwempilo? Xa i-CUD iziphumo zemeko ziveza ukukhuthaniswa komthetho okanye ukusetyenziswa kwemeko ye-gropokolo-ogralitikitiki phakathi kwemeko yezo yezo-

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko soLawulo oluPhakamileyo lweRhulumente

Isigqibo sokuzikhusela solawulo lwezikhundla ezizimeleyo sesizwe sesizwe esiphezulu sithathela imvelaphi yaso kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, apho isiKhulumente sasingenakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yaso. Abaququzeli bomGaqo-siseko wase-U. baquka lo mgaqo, kwaye waqiniswa nguMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesithoba, waqinisekiswa ngo1795. Isivumelwano savela ngqo kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo ICHOLOM] v. [[FLT].[FLD] [12:1] [1793], apho iNkuvumele ummi wabemi ozimeleyo ukuba anyukelwe iGeorgia ngenxa yetyala elingahlawulwanga. Amazwe akhutshwayo angomnye urhulumente okanye angoMgaqo-ongowase-Agencelvey, okanye angomnye uRhulumente, okanye uR.[odmist]

Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla ePhakamileyo itolika ngokuphandle ukulungisa. Hans v. Louisiana (1890), iNkundla yabambelela kwelokuba ukupheliswa kukwabo kuxhomekeke kwilizwe layo, nangona umbhalo ungathethi ncam. Izigqibo zamva, ezifana ne- Alden v. [1999], ukhuseleko lwenkundla lwenkundla lukwayamkeleka kwinkundla yetyala ngokunjalo, ukuqiqanda ukuba umgaqo womthetho womthetho ulondoloza ulawulo kwizenzo zomonakalo lwangasese. Namhlanje, ulawulo lwezolawulo luyindawo ekhuselayo ekufuneni imali, ngaphandle kokuba i-bucala livumelane mvume okanye i-Bhunga- ngokomthetho.

Umda kunye nezinxaxhi kuMlawuli

Phezu kwazo nje iinkuselo ezibanzi, ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo aluphelelanga. Iimfuno eziliqela zivumela amaqela azimeleyo ukuba acel ’ umngeni isenzo sombuso, ingakumbi xa amalungelo omGaqo-siseko esengozini okanye xa iNgqungquthela ithetha ngokucacileyo. Ukuqonda ezi zinto zingafaniyo kubalulekile kwiingozi zempilo yoluntu, apho oorhulumente banokugqitha imida yomGaqo-siseko.

Imfundiso Epheleleyo Encinane

Enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo yimfundiso ye-Ex yeQuell emiselwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo-1908. Phantsi kwale mfundiso, abantu ngabanye banokumangalela amagosa eenkundla zikarhulumente kwinkundla ye-injuntia okanye ukurhoxa kwemeko ephezulu ukuphelisa ukuqhubekeka komthetho karhulumente, kuquka umGaqo-siseko. Inkcaso yeyokuba urhulumente osemthethweni ongekho mthethweni usebenza ngokungekho mthethweni ngenxa yesizwe yaye ngaloo ndlela akakunandiswa kukhuselo lwesizwe. Oku kusenokungavumeli ukulahlwa kwemali emali yezono, kodwa kuvumele ukugcinwa kokungagcinwa komthetho okuqhubekayo. Ngokwemiqathango yezo ezempilo, [FOT:] inxalenye yeqela [FT] [3] i-FT.[20]

Ukuhlaziywa kweBhunga

IBhunga lingasikhusela kwimithetho-siseko yezolawulo yephondo xa lisebenza ngamandla alo okulawula phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-Mphetho we-14. Ukwenza oko, iNgqungquthela kufuneka (1) ivakalise inhloso yayo ecacileyo kwinjongo yokukhusela ukukhuselwa kwemeko-siseko somGaqo-siseko. Kwimeko yempilo yoluntu, umzekelo obalaseleyo kukuHlalwa koluntu (PREP) nokuHluswa kweNyaka kwe-PP). Inguwo mthetho owe-PP unika ityala lokuzikhusela ekulahlekeni okubangelwa yimeko yokungalawuleki kwemeko ebangelwa yi-mthetho-mgaqo-siseko, (2) yenza usebenze ngaphakathi kwegunya layo, amayeza, izixhobo zonyango, izixhobo zempilo yoluntu lonke. Ikwakhe igosa ityala elingekhoyo phantsi kwemeko engekho ngqiqweni yomthetho ephantsi kwegunya lilo mbuso, kodwa ingayiphumeleli ngokuzenzekelayo imeko yemeko yokhuseleko yemeko yomthetho yomthetho womthetho wolawulo lwemeko. Kodwa ke, inguquaseburhulumente eliphantsi lonke, ibangele ityala eliphantsi kwesongelo eliphantsi

Imithetho Yolwaleko

Amazwe angavuma ngokuphandle ukumangalelwa, mhlawumbi ngomthetho okanye ngokuthabatha inxaxheba kwiinkqubo ezithile zikarhulumente. Amazwana amaninzi anezenzo zokuthelekisa imigaqo-nkqubo yokuzikhusela kolawulo lwezonyango ngenxa yokungakhathali kwimida ethile. Ngexesha longxamiseko yempilo kawonke wonke, maxa wambi achaza ukunqanda ukhuseleko lwexeshana ukukhuthaza intsebenziswano ngemilinganiselo yongxamiseko okanye ukuncedisa ukubuyisa ityala. Umzekelo, amaphondo amaninzi awiswe iCHOVID-19 iimfanelo ezisikelwe ityala elisikelweyo kubanikezeli kunye namashishini, kodwa la manqanda asoloko egcina amathuba athile ezinto ezikhatywa okanye ukungakhathaleli kwangatshatiyo. Isivumelwano sokusebenza sisenokuboniswa kwakhona xa urhulumente esusa ngokuzithandela imeko kwinkundla (umz., phantsi kwemfundiso eqhutywa ngokusemthethweni), kodwa oko kulinganiselwe.

Ingxamiseko yempilo kawonke-wonke kunye nesenzo sikaRhulumente

Iingozi zempilo kawonke-wonke zivavanya imida yamandla karhulumente nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Ityala lentsimbi linguJacobson v. Massachusetts (05), apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa umthetho wesitofu semongo esinyanzelekileyo sesixeko nxamnye nocelomngeni olufanelekileyo. INkundla yaqonda ukuba amagunya amapolisa abanzi ukukhusela impilo kawonke-wonke, ngokokuba nobuchule nemfuneko. Lo mgaqo uye wanyamezela ngaphezu kwenkulungwane kwaye wabizwa rhoqo ngexesha lobhubhani we-COVID ukuze ukhusele izikhuseli, ukuvalwa kweminxeba yemingxibo yento, kunye nemiyalelo yesikolo.

Noko ke, amanqaku awagonywanga ekuhlolweni komgaqo-siseko. uJacobson isiseko senkqubo esifuna ukuba amanyathelo ongxamiseko abe "ayokwenene okanye anamandla" kwimpilo kawonke-wonke kwaye angabi "kulula, ukuhlaselwa kwamalungelo akhuselwe ngumthetho osisiseko. Ukuthintelwa kolawulo oluphezulu kungakhusela iimeko kwizono zohlaselo olunjalo, kodwa akuzithinteli kwinkululeko ekhoyo phantsi [ inxenye eYoung. Ngalo ndlela, ngexesha lesifo, umsinga womthetho ochasene norhulumente ofuna ukumiswa kwemiyalelo yempilo kawonke kwiindawo zomGomatilo-mthetho, kodwa ayikhuseli, ikhuselwa inkululeko yonqulo, kunye nenkqubo elungele ukuphumelela, [FLT] [5] [5]

I-Overday kwi-COVID-19

Isifo se-COVOID-19 salungiselela ilebhu yokwenene yehlabathi ukwenzela ukudibana kwemibutho yokhuseleko lokwemvelo nomthetho wempilo kawonke-wonke. Amazwe amisela imiyalelo yongxamiseko engazange ibonwe ngaphambili, exhokonxa amakhulu eenkundla. Imimandla emithathu engundoqo ibonisa amandla asemthethweni.

Imimiselo Enxamnye Namagosa Karhulumente

Impahla ezininzi ze Suts ezicel ’ umngeni i-COVID-19 zinikwe imiyalelo ebizwa ngokuba ziirhuluneli zelizwe, abalawuli bezempilo, okanye amagosa asekuhlaleni njengabamangalelwa, befuna isiqabu. Phantsi Ex nxenyee Young, ezi sutus zaqhubeka ukuba zithe zithe zithe thaa ukuphulwa komthetho karhulumente. Umzekelo, amashishini acel'ukucel'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiyalelo yokuvala imiyalelo echaphazelelwa ukuba ayizange ikhuseleke ngokulinganayo xa amashishini anjalo ehleli evulekile. Kodwa xa iinkundla ezininzi zafuna ulawulo oluqhelekileyo, uJaconson[FLT] kwaye kuxhomeke kwingxelo ecacileyo, mhlawumbi axhasa okanye ahla imiyalelo. Ukhuselo lwezongavuselelwangavunyelwanga, umthetho omthetho-CF.[2]

Isalathisi somsebenzi weCandelo

I-PREP Act enika ukhuseleko olubanzi kuluntu olugqunyiweyo. Kodwa abenzi bezonyango, iinkampani zeziyobisi, kunye nabasebenzi abathile abanyamekela impilo.

Imiqathango Echasene NamaZwe

Amanye amazwe athe tya agwetyelwa ngqo ukungxwaba okubangelwa kukutshixwa, ukuvalwa kwesikolo, okanye imiqathango kwishishini. Ezi suti zidla ngokungaphumeleli ngenxa yokuzikhusela kolawulo. Umzekelo, Horne v. Georgia [2021], iqela labaphathi abancinane bezoshishino layifaka i-Georgia ngenxa yokulahlekelwa yimali ngenxa yemiqathango yendawo ekhuselekileyo. Urhulumente wacela ukhuseleko lobukhosi, kwaye inkundla ayizange ivume into yokuba urhulumente wayengavumelani nempahla enjalo kwaye iBhunga lomthetho wawungagunyaziswanga phantsi kolawulo lwe-Genedecima-105. Ngokufanayo, abazali bayazicel ’ ingeniso ngenxa yokona okuchasene nomthetho wokukhusela, njengoko uninzi lwezomthetho wokuzimogoso lwezomthetho wokuzi.

Ukulungelelanisa Umanyano Nempilo Kawonke - wonke

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzimelanga kwesizwe ibonakalisa ukhetho olusisiseko kurhulumente waseMerika: amaxwebhu kufuneka akwazi ukulawula ngaphandle kwesisongelo esiqhubekayo sokumangalelwa kwabantu ngasese esinokuthi siphule ubuncwane boluntu kunye nesenzo sobundlobongela ngexesha leengxaki. Kodwa ukunqanda ukugqibelela okupheleleyo kungashiya abantu bengenayo nayiphi na indlela yokuzilungisa xa oorhulumente bephula amalungelo omgaqo-siseko okanye bebangela umonakalo onokubangelwa. Ulungelelwano phakathi kolawulo nokuphendula komntu luye lwabethwa ngokuphandle okuchazwe ngasentla, kodwa uxinelo luyaqhubekeka.

Ngexesha longxamiseko lwempilo kawonke-wonke, abamisi-mthetho kufuneka baqwalasele oothunywashe abaliqela. Kwelinye icala, ukukhusela ukunqanda ukunqongophala kwemiqathango kufuneka kuvumele amazwe ukuba enze ngokufanelekileyo, afake imiyalelo yokukhulula abantu, asebenzise amachiza, kunye nokusebenzisa izixhobo zokunyanga (ngaphandle koloyiko lokungaphezi. Ngelinye icala, abantu abafumana intlungu ngenxa yokungathobeli ngokwesondo abanako ukuncedwa. Inkqubo esemthethweni ixhomekeke kwingxuba-tyala elingenazigwebo (umz. umz., yamagosa awazi ukuba awazi ukuba angawazalisa amalungelo omGaqo-siseko) ukuzalisa ikhefuthe, kodwa la manyango angonelanga.

Iimpendulo zomthetho zicetyiwe ukucacisa umgangatho wokhuseleko ngexesha longxamiseko. Umzekelo, uMthetho we-Emergency Refection (PHERA) osungulwe kwiKhomishini uya kudala unobangela wesizwe wokulwa namalungelo athile empilo kawonke-wonke. Noko ke, umthetho onjalo uya kufuneka ulwelo olusemthethweni lwezokhuseleko lombuso olucwangcisiweyo phantsi kwecandelo 5 loMphetho-Mbetho we - 14, unyuselo onzima womgaqo-siseko. Amazwe ngokwawo agqithise iingwelezo zetyala ngexesha lengozi, kodwa ezi zahluka kakhulu. Ezinye, njengaseNew York, izibonelelo zempilo nabaxhasi kodwa zivumele izenzo zokungakhathalelwa. Abanye, njengeeTexas, banikela ukhuseleko oluthe kratya kwimicimbi yezoshishino kunye nezikolo.

Iinkundla zikwacocile ulwamkelo. Kodwa iNkundla iqaphele ukuba amalungelo omgaqo-siseko amele akhuselwe, kwanaxa kukho ingozi. (203), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yalumkisa ngokuphambana kwe-oventian color journ juriprudence. KwiNkundla i-'i-'i-'iNkundla'ede''''esezantsi] iBay yePentecostaltiki v'. [[FTLT] [200] [200], iNkurhoxibelo lungavunywa luncedo lwezikhundla lwamandla eenqanawa kodwa kamva lufumaniswe imiqathango engaqondakaliyo. Umyalezo ucacile: ukhuseleko lokhuseleko, kodwa awuyithintinga imeko ye-gcontrover ekwi-gnomential.[Ft]

Ubuncwane bangaphandle bunikela uhlalutyo olunzulu. Kwimeko ebanzi yoMphetho-mva weshumi elinesixhenxe kunye neenketho zawo, bona isikhokelo solwazi lwasemthethweni seZiko. [[FLT:][CD] CDC's yeyobuGcisa loLuntu leMgangatho-mali ichaza iimbopheleleko zolawulo nombuso. [[FLT:]] [[FLT]]] Jaconson v. isigqibo ngokwaso sikhona [[FLT] .[FLT:][5]] [iphelot].[FLT]] [[FLT]]

Isiphelo

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe luhlala luyindawo esisiseko yokukhusela ulawulo lukarhulumente, ingakumbi ngexesha longxamiseko xa oorhulumente kufuneka bathathe amanyathelo ngokukhawuleza nangokomeleleyo. Le mfundiso ivumela oorhulumente ukuba baphumeze amanyathelo onyango olungokwasemthethweni ngaphandle kwesiphumo esimandundu sokonganyelwa ngokuzinzileyo. Noko ke, oku kungaphandle kwe-(_ngokukhethekileyo) inxenye eYoung[ imfundiso esisiseko] esisiseko [[FLT]] iqinisekisa ukuba abantu bangafuna ukukhulula xa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko wesiseko ephulwa. Isifo se-COVID-19 sibonisa ixabiso lokhuseleko kunye nokukwazi kwabo ukushiya amaqela awo awo awo awo alileyo ngaphandle kwembuyiselo. Njengoko iziso ezitsha zempilo zikawonke-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko ziqhubeka ukuguqula, ukulungiselela imfuneko yesenzo esikhawulezileyo sedinga ukuphendula kolawulo lwe-ompele yomthetho-o-mthetho-mthetho-wonke-wonke wonke neseluntlukwano olusameleyokubonakalisa ulawulo lomthetho-mthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho