IBhili yamaLungelo, eyagunyaziswa ngoDisemba 15, 1791, ime njengembombo yenkululeko yaseMerika. Ezi ziphendulo zokuqala ezilishumi zomGaqo-siseko waseUnited States zikhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye kwaye zimisela amandla karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente. Ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, olu xwebhu luye lwabumba inkqubo esemthethweni, imibutho ephefumlelweyo yokusesikweni, kwaye yahlala kumbindi weengxoxo ezikrakrakra zezobupolitika nezentlalo. Ukuqonda iBhili yenkululeko yamaLungelo (imvelaphi), imigaqo yalo engundoqo, kunye noncedo lwalo oluqhubekayo lokuzama ukufikelela kwiMelika ekuzingeni.

Imbali: Isizathu Sokuba IBhili Yamalungelo Ifuneke

Ukusekwa kweBhili yamaLungelo kwakungenakuphepheka okanye kwakungekho semthethweni. Emva kweNdibano yoMgaqo-siseko yowe-1787 yavelisa isiseko esitsha sorhulumente wesizwe onamandla, ingxoxo ekrazulayo ekrakra yagqama kumazwe alishumi elinesithathu. AmaMerika amaninzi ayesoyika ukuba umGaqo-siseko ocetyisiweyo wawunika igunya elininzi kakhulu kwigunya elikude, ushiya abemi bechanabekekile kwingcinezelo efanayo ababelwe ukuphuma eBritani.

Idayadi yomanyano kunye ne-Anti-Federalist

Ingxoxo ejinga kwimibono emibini ephikisanayo. Izifundo zamalungelo akhethekileyo , ezikhokelwa ngu-Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, noJohn Jay, zaphikisa ngelithi irejista yamalungelo yayingeyomfuneko kuba umGaqo-siseko wanika urhulumente amandla adweliswe kuphela. Balumkisa ukuba ukudwelisa amalungelo athile kunokuba yingozi, okubonisa ukuba amalungelo angabhalwanga ayengekho. uNostris No. 84, Hamilkle wabhala ukuba "umGaqo-siseko ungowawodwa, ngayo yonke ingqiqo esengqiqweni, kwaye kuyo yonke injongo eluncedo, uBhili-Lungqwe."

Kwelinye icala, amaqela akwizikhuseli ze-Anti-FEderalist , kuquka uPatrick Henry noGeorge Mason, banyanzelisa ukuba ngaphandle kokhuseleko olucacileyo, abemi banokuba bangenakukwazi ukukhusela urhulumente abaphangi. Bakhomba kwisithethe saseBritane sezicelo zamalungelo alungileyo neSikolo samaNgesi samaLungelo onyaka 1689 njengemizekelo. Abachasi-Fedalist baphikisa ukuba ityala lamalungelo laliluvavanyo oluyimfuneko kumandla, ingakumbi ukuphelelwa kwemidatha yolawulo kunye negunya elibanzi lesebe elitsha elilawulayo.

  • Izazi zamalungelo: zazikholelwa ukuba urhulumente onamandla onamandla wayeyimfuneko kumanyano lwesizwe nozinzo lwezoqoqosho; zijongwa njengephepha lamalungelo njenge redunding okanye kwanengozi.
  • [[UMTL:0] Iingcali zeAnti-Federalis: amandla oyikekayo ayakutshabalalisa ulawulo lwesizwe kunye nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye; ifuna ukhuseleko olucacileyo njengemeko yokukrazulwa.

Ukukhusela ukudityaniswa kwamaphondo angundoqo anjengeVirginia neNew York, abaququzeleli bamagunya bathembisa ukongeza irejista yamalungelo xa urhulumente omtsha wadibana. UJames Madison, ekuqaleni ethandabuza, waba ngumyili oyintloko wezokulungiswa kwezicelo, ezoba ziphuma kwizicelo zendibano yokudityaniswa kwephondo kunye neSindululo samaLungelo saseVirginia. Wangenisa izindululo ezilishumi elinesibini kwiNgqungquthela Yokuqala ngo179; ishumi lanconywa ngamaphondo laza aba yiBhili yamaLungelo.

Uhlaziyo Oluyintloko KwiBhili Yamalungelo: Ukujonga Okunenkcukacha

Ezi zilungiso zilishumi zigubungela uludwe lokhuseleko, ukusuka kunkululeko yomntu ngamnye ukuya kwimida yegunya likarhulumente. Ngezantsi luhlolo oluneenkcukacha ezingakumbi ngalunye, kuquka intsingiselo yembali kunye nesicelo sangoku.

UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo: Inkululeko Entlanu

UHlaliso Lokuqala lukhusela amalungelo amahlanu asisiseko: inkululeko yokuthetha, unqulo, ukushicilela, indibano, nelungelo lokucela urhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo. Kusoloko kuthathwa njengokulungiswa okubalulekileyo ngenxa yokuba kukhusela inkqubo yedemokhrasi ngokwayo. Ukumiswa kolawulo lwedemokhrasi kunye ne-Free Service Claus kuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakumisela unqulo lwesizwe okanye athintele abemi ekuqheliseni ukholo lwabo. Intetho kunye nokucinezela izigwebo kuye kwatolikwa ngokubanziswa, kukhusela yonke into ekungavumelani kwezobupolitika nokuchaza. Imeko ezifana ne neNew York Times. .[1964]) yomeleza ukukhusela abasemagunyeni barhulumente, ngelixa elinguwonke wonke umntu, ngexesha [5][5]

Uhlaziyo Lwesibini: Ilungelo Lokuthwala Izixhobo

ISigqibo sesibini soHlaziyo sivakalisa oku: "Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo eLawulwe kakuhle, siyimfuneko kukhuseleko loRhulumente olukhululekileyo, ilungelo labantu lokugcina nokuphatha Iizixhobo, asiyi kuphazanyiswa. Ukuphikiswa kwamashumi eminyaka, intsingiselo yayo yaphikiswa. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sanciphiswa i-Difique of Columbia v. [[FLT][200L]] [2001] [2001] [ilungelo lokuzikhusela] ukuba umntu akhusele ilungelo lokuba nezixhobo zokuzilawula ngokwakhefutha ngaphakathi kwekhaya, ezizimeleyo inkonzo yemikhosi. Ukulawula kwenqanawa [FLT] [FLT]. [iFLT] VFLT] [FLT] [FLT] [53]) (2010]) kwasebenza oku kulawulo lwe-Dhombumbutho, ukujo, ukujola, ukujoyina, ukujoyina, ukuqinisekisa, ukuqinisekisa okuzinyelwa, ukurhomba okunga kweminyelela okunga.

Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu: Amajoni Alungelelanisiweyo

UMthetho wesithathu woLawulo owenziwe ngoxolo uthintele urhulumente ekunyanzeleni abaninimakhaya ukuba bawaqhube ngethuba loxolo ngaphandle kwemvume. Oku yayiyintsabelo engqalileyo kuqheliselo lwamaBritane awalufumana lungenayo impembelelo. Usengowona mgaqo uphenjelelwayo owenziweyo enkundleni, kodwa ubonakalisa umgaqo obanzi wokuzifunela izinto zobuqu nowokukhusela ekuphathweni ngumkhosi.

UMthetho Wesine: Ukufuna Nokuzimela

UHlomelo lwesine lukhusela "ukuphengulula okungenangqiqo nokuxhuzula" kwaye lufuna imvume yokukhutshwa kuphela kwisizathu esilindelekileyo, exhaswe sifungo okanye isingqiniso, kunye nokuchaza indawo ezakuphekwa kunye nabantu okanye izinto eziza kuthinjwa. Oku kulunga kusembindini weengxoxo zabucala zale mihla. INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenzise ukukhupha ucingo, iGPS umkhondo, kunye nogcino-lwazi lwamanani. [[FLT: 0]] Carpenter v. United States, iNkundla ibambe ukuba urhulumente usoloko efuna isiqinisekiso sokufumana ulwazi lwezisele ezingokwembali, ukuvuma oko kunyusela iimfuno ezintsha.

UHlaliso lweNtloko: Inkqubo efanelekileyo nokuzithethelela

IsiHlanziso seNhlanu siquka ukhuseleko oluninzi olubalulekileyo: ukumangalelwa okukhulu kwabachopheli-mthetho abanzulu, ukukhuselwa kwetyala elinzulu, ilungelo elichasene nokuzibeka engozini ephindiweyo, ukuqinisekiswa kwenkqubo efanelekileyo, nokwalela ukuthatha impahla yangasese ngaphandle kwembuyiselo. Ibinzana elidumileyo "Iyayithethelela isihlanu" iziqu ezisuka kwicandelo lobuhlanga. Inkqubo efunekayo yokuchophela itolikwa itolikiwe ukukhusela uludwe lwamalungelo angundoqo, kuquka ilungelo lokuzifunela ubuqu kwiimeko ezifana Roe v. Wade [12]] iziqumrhulu ezisuka kwicandelo lobuqu. [FLT:]bergefe. v [FT][FLT] [FF]

UMthetho Wesithandathu Ohlaziyiweyo: Ukuvavanywa Kwetyala Okufanelekileyo Nokukhawulezileyo

IsiHlamlisi seSithandathu siqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala elikhawulezayo nelinoluntu lingumgwebi ongakhethi-cala, ilungelo lokuxelelwa ngendalo yezityholo, ilungelo lokuthetha namangqina, ilungelo lokunyanzela amangqina ukuba anikele ubungqina, nelungelo lokunika icebiso elingokwasemthethweni. Ityala lembali Gideon v. Wainwright [1963] limisele ukuba amatyala kufuneka anike igqwetha abamangali-mthetho abangenakukwazi ukufikelela kubulungisa, okungathethekiyo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwendlela Yokuzilungisa: Izilingo Zokuvavanywa Kwabemi

Le ngxelo igcina ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala kumatyala asekuhlaleni apho imali exabanayo ingaphezulu lee-dola ezingama-20, kwaye ithintela iinkundla ekubhukuqeni iziphumo zenyaniso zabachopheli-tyala ngaphandle kwemithetho eqhelekileyo. Ibonakalisa inkolelo yabaseki yokuba amajaji asebenza njengovavanyo kwigunya lejaji nakurhulumente.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwemiqathango Esibhozo: Inkohlakalo Nesohlwayo Esingaqhelekanga

Uhlaziyo lwesibhozo lukwalela ukugqithisa kwebheyile, ukuhlawuliswa kakhulu, isohlwayo esigqithisileyo, nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga. Isigwebo sayo senkohlakalo nesongaqhelekanga siye sasetyenziswa ukuvavanya isohlwayo sokufa, iimeko zokuvalelwa, nezigwebo ezingenakuthelekiswa nako ulwaphulo-mthetho. Furman v. Georgia [1997], iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibekel'incopho ngokunekileyo, nangona kamva amaziko ahlaziya imithetho yawo yokuthobela imilinganiselo emitsha. Intengiso egqithisiweyo ikwayimiqatha, njengoko iqinisekisiwe kwi miths v.[FLT] ,[FLT] , (2017]).

UMthetho Ohlaziyiweyo Wesi - 1000: Amalungelo Angenazintlukwano

ISindululo se-Ninth sithi: "Ubalo kuMgaqo-siseko, lwamalungelo athile, aluzukuthathwa njengolukhanyelo okanye ucalucalulo kwabanye abantu. Le yayiyimpendulo kaMadison kwimpikiswano yomanyano yokuba ukudwelisa amalungelo bekuya kuthetha ukuba amalungelo angamiselwanga akakho. Ngelixesha lingasetyenziswayo njengesiseko esiphambili sokulawula, isekela ingcamango yokuba amaMelika anamalungelo ngaphaya kwabo bakhankanyiweyo ngokucacileyo, afana , akwamkeleke kwinkundla ephakamileyo kwi-.Grislold.Connecticut[F:1] (1965).

UHlaliso lweshumi: Amalungelo namaPhondo aseUnited States

UMthetho-Mpandelo weSihlanu ogcinwe kumaphondo okanye kubantu nawuphi na ulawulo olungagunyaziswanga ngurhulumente worhulumente nguMgaqo-siseko, okanye olungavumelekanga kumazwe. Lilitye eliqinileyo le-American, elimisela umlinganiselo wegunya lorhulumente. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yacela ukuba ibethe imithetho karhulumente edlula amagunya ahlukeneyo, njengaku Shicilelaz v. United States (1997), eyaphelisa imfuneko karhulumente yokuba abaphathi-mthetho basebenze bahlole imvelaphi yemipu.

Impembelelo YeBhili Yamalungelo Oluntu LwaseMerika

IBhili yamaLungelo asiyonto isetyenziswayo; ibingumandla anamandla kwimbali yaseMerika, iphembelela imibutho yentlalo, imithetho ebumba, kunye nokuchazwa kwemigaqo elawulayo. Imigaqo yayo iye yasetyenziswa ukucel ’ umngeni ingcinezelo nokwandisa isangqa senkululeko.

Impembelelo Kumalungelo Abemi

Ukusuka ekupheliseni amaLungelo ukuya kweli xesha, abaxhasi baye basebenzisa iBhili yamaLungelo ukunyanzela ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo phantsi komthetho. Iziqinisekiso zoMphengululo Wokuqala zomlomo kunye nendibano zanikela isiseko esisemthethweni sokungavumi ngethuba leMibutho yaMalungelo e-Civil. Iinkokeli ezinjengoMartin Luther King Jr. zasebenzisa ilungelo lokubongoza urhulumente ukuba anyanzelise urhulumente ukuba aphelise ulawulo oluzimeleyo. Umbutho wamabhinqa owenziwe ngegunya, ofikelela kwiSindululo seSikhundla seshumi Elithathu, osekelwe kwimigaqo ebanzi yenkululeko nolinganayo edityaniswe kwiBhili yamaLungelo. Kutshanje, iLBGTTQ i-Geneth izindululo zisebenzise iziHlamgalelo zoMgaqo wokuQ ukuze zikhusele umgangatho womtshato kunye nokhuseleko lwe-antikhdimin. I-195 kunye ne-Delmendsting i-dmigrance kwiingxoxo zezo zobugracrivement

Ukucaciswa Kwezigwebo Netyala Lemiqathango

INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuchazeni iBhili yamaLungelo. Ngeli xesha imarbury v. Madison [183]) esungule uhlolo lomthetho, yayikwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini apho iNkundla iqalisile "ukuqululisa" inkoliso yamalungelo amagunya kwiimeko ngokugqitha kweGawulayo. Le nkqubo, eyaziwa njengeenkomfa yokhetho, iqinisekisa ukuba oorhulumente bamele balunike intlukwano. Amatyala angundoqo aquka [[FLT:] v[FLD] v[FOLT3] (195]) phantsi komthetho we-ENT].[5]

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Ngelixesha ubuchule buyimeko yokhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi koMphetho-mva weshumi elinesine, yayakhela kwimigaqo yenkululeko yobuqu nesidima esikhuselwa yiBhili yamaLungelo.
  • Miranda v. Arizona (1966): INkundla yachaza ibinzana loMphetho-Mthambeko wesihlanu lifuna ukuba kurhanelwe amalungelo abo phambi kokuncinwa kwegunya, ukwenza izilumkiso ezidumileyo zeMiranda.
  • [[NTL:0] Roe v. Wade (1973): ibekwe ekunene kwimfihlo, ebekwe yiNkundla ku "penumbras" yeyokuqala, eyesine, eyesihlanu, neyeSihlanu, neyeNinth.
  • I-Citizens United v. FEC (2010): Ukhuseleko oluKhuselekileyo loQala lokuLawula uGcino-mthetho kwinkcitho yezopolitiko ezizimeleyo, ibangela ingxoxo eqhubekayo ngemali kwezobupolitika.

Ukubuyiselwa: IBhili Yamalungelo Ngenkulungwane yama - 21

IBhili yamaLungelo isoloko isebenza kakhulu kubomi banamhlanje. Ukutshintsha kwezobugcisa, izithethe eziguquguqukayo zentlalo, nokungavisisani kwezobupolitika kuye kwabangela iingxaki ezintsha neengxoxo ezisekelwe kuzo zonke iindidi.

Ukuthetha Kakhululekileyo Kwixesha Eliqhelekileyo

Ukuvela kwamaqonga osasazo-ndaba kuye kwavavanya imida yoMmiselo Wokuqala. Imibuzo ephathelele ukuthethwa kwentiyo, ulwazi oluphosakeleyo, kunye nendima yeenkampani zabucala ekuguquleni izinto azinazo iimpendulo ezilula. Nangona urhulumente engenakukwazi ukuphengulula intetho (ekuthobeleni intetho enciphileyo efana nokuphethuka okanye ukunyeliswa), amaqonga obuqu awanyanzelelwanga luHlaziyo loQotho loQotho-Mgaqo-mthetho. Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekubeni kufuneke ukuphendula kwiqonga, umthetho omtsha, kwaneenzelo lomgaqo-siseko. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ngoku iqwalasela amatyala enoba amaqumrhuqela onxibelelwano anokunyanzela iinkampani zeze iintetho ezithile okanye ukuphembelela intetho ezithile.

Ulawulo lwemipu nohlaziyo Lwesibini

IMisa kunye nogonyamelo lwemipu kuxhaswe iingxoxo ezikhoyo malunga noMphetho-mvakalo wesibini. Inkundla ePhakamileyo i- Heller kunye uMcDonald[ ukumisela ilungelo lomntu ngamnye lokuthwala izixhobo, kodwa iinkundla ezisezantsi zixhase imimiselo emininzi, enjengovavanyo lwemvelaphi kunye nemiqathango kwimiqathango yetyala. [FLT:] kwisigqibo sephondo leNew York Rifle & Pristol Association v. Bru[FLD:] [FLD] [25] [202], iNkubengowathi olufihlakeleyo oluzinzileyo, ukwamkela umthetho owembali owewokuvavanyaza ukuvavanya umpu. [FLT]

Amalungelo Okufihla Icala Kwixesha Lokwanda

Ukhuseleko loMgaqo-nkqubo wesine ochasene nokuphengulula okungekho ngqiqweni luye lwaneliswe ngokuhlola okungaqiqekiyo. Ukufikelela kukarhulumente kwindawo ekuyo icell phone data, ii-imeyili, kunye nee-ofisi zezentlalo-ntle yoluntu kuphakamisa imibuzo malunga nolindelo olufanelekileyo lwento eyimfihlo. Isigqibo se-Artenter [ siphawulwe inyathelo elibalulekileyo, kodwa iBhunga kunye neenkundla ziyaqhubeka zilwa nemibandela efana noqokelelo-data enamacala amakhulu, ubugcisa bokuphawula ubuso, kunye nokuphengulula okungenasiqinisekiso. USA INFUSFUS Act of Expressocebookythis of Decrificience ka 2015 ithetha ngezinye iinguquko ezithile, kodwa abaxhasi be-mfihloms.

Uhlaziyo Lwesibhozo Notshintsho Lobulungisa Bezaphuli - mthetho

Inkxalabo ngokuvalelwa kwabantu abaninzi, izigwebo ezigqithiseleyo, kunye neemeko ezinzima ziye zabangela ukuba uMphengululo wesiXhosa ubonakale uphambili. INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yabeka umda wobomi ngaphandle kokukhutshelwa kwesigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho oluthile kwaye yavala izigwebo zokubulawa koontanga eziyimfuneko. Kodwa iingxoxo ziyaqhubeka ngokuvalelwa komGaqo-siseko, iimali kunye nenkcitho ebamba abamangalelwayo abangento yanto, kunye nesohlwayo sokubulawa. Amanye amazwe aye asiphelisa isohlwayo sentambo, ngoxa amanye eqhubeka ebulala abantu nangona kukho impikiswano kawonke wonke.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo Kwiimbono Zehlabathi

Ngoxa iBhili yamaLungelo engooMelika ingaqhelekanga, impembelelo yayo iyanda ehlabathini lonke. Amazwe amaninzi aye amkela ukhuseleko olufanayo kwimimiselo yawo yomgaqo-siseko, ngokufuthi ephuma ngqo kwimodeli yaseMerika. ISindululo seZizwe Ezihlangeneyo samaLungelo Oluntu (1948) sikwabonisa imigaqo emininzi ekhutshiwe kwintelekelelo yokuqala elishumi, njengenkululeko yokuzichaza, indibano, kunye nokukhusela ekubanjisweni ngokungekho ngqiqweni. IBhili yamaLungelo isebenza njengebhethralksi yelungelo lokulawula amalungelo abantu emhlabeni wonke, nangona ukutolikwa kwayo kwahluka kakhulu kwiinkqubo zomthetho.

Isiphelo: Isiseko Esiphilileyo Senkululeko

IBhili yamaLungelo ingaphezulu kakhulu kunengxelo engokwembali egcinwe kwisiseko sogcino-lwazi lwesizwe. Luyinkqubo ephilayo eqhubeka ibumba amalungelo neembopheleleko zabemi baseMelika. Impikiswano ejikeleze ukudalwa kwayo ngezantsi komlinganiselo ofanelekileyo phakathi kwamandla karhulumente nenkululeko yomntu ngamnye, kwiingozi zolawulo oluphezulu kunye nemfuneko yokukhusela okucacileyo. Njengoko kuvela ucelomngeni olutsha, ukusuka kwinkqubela-phambili yebhayoloji, imigaqo efakwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo iza kukhokela iimpendulo zesizwe. Ukuzigcina nokuqonda ezi zinto aziyo nje imfundo; kubalulekile ukugcina inkululeko echazwa yimeko eUnited States. Ukuhlola umbhalo opheleleyo, ukutyelela imbali, [[FFF:] [10] [5]