Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini umi njengesiseko somgaqo wezolwaphulo-mthetho waseMerika, ukhusela abantu ukuba bangazanywa kaninzi ngenxa yesenzo esinye solwaphulo-mthetho. Nangona isiseko somGaqo-siseko sicacile, ukusetyenziswa kokhuseleko oluphindiweyo lwengozi kuyahluka-hluka ngokwentsingiselo phakathi kwenkqubo yenkundla yesizwe neyaseburhulumenteni. Lo mahluko awuyomfundo nje ephambili; uneziphumo zokwenene kubamangalelwa, abatshutshisi, kunye nolawulo lwezobulungisa kwiingingqi eziqengqele. Ukuqonda ezi nkcukacha zibalulekile kubafundi bomthetho, iingcali zomthetho, kunye naye nabani na ofuna ukuqhuba okanye ukuqonda ulawulo lwe-U.S.

Eli nqaku linikela uvavanyo olubanzi, olugunyazisiweyo lwengozi ephindwe kabini kwiinkundla zorhulumente. Siza kuhlolisisa isiseko somGaqo-siseko, imithetho engqalileyo elawula inkqubo nganye yenkundla, umahluko ongundoqo okhoyo, kunye nemfundiso elawulayo yolawulo olubini edala enye yezona zinto zibalulekileyo ezichaseneyo kukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini. Ngesiphelo, uza kuba nesiseko esicacileyo sokuhlolisisa indlela ezisebenza ngayo iingozi eziphindwe kabini kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo zabatshutshisi.

Yintoni Ingxaki Ephindwe Kabini? Isiseko somGaqo-siseko

IReopardy Claus iyinxalenye yeSigqibo sesihlanu soMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States, esivakalisa ukuba akukho mntu oya "kubekwa" phantsi kwetyala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini yobomi okanye ilungu elinye. Lo khuseleko lusebenza kurhulumente wesizwe ngqo kwaye luye lwafakwa nxamnye namazwe ngokusetyenziswa koMphetho-weshumi elinesine. Injongo ephambili yengozi ephindwe kabini kukuthintela urhulumente ekusebenziseni ubuncwane bakhe obuphezulu ekuxakekiseni abantu ngetyala eliphindaphindiweyo, ngaloo ndlela kuqinisekisa ukuba ekugqibeleni kumangalelwa kwamacala olwaphulo-mthetho nokukhusela abamangalelwa kwinkxazo, iindleko, kunye nokuhlaziswa kokuvavanywa okuphinda kaninzi ngenxa yezenzo ezithenjiweyo ezingafanelekanga.

Imvelaphi Nemvelaphi Yembali

Ingcamango yengozi ephindwe kabini inemvelaphi yamandulo, enemiqathango efunyanwa kumthetho wamaRoma nakumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi. EUnited States, abaxhasi baquka ngokucacileyo kwiBhili yamaLungelo ukuthetha ngenkxalabo karhulumente ngokuphangwa. INkundla ePhakamileyo ichaze izinto ezintathu ezikhethekileyo ezikhuselwe yiVinic Jeopardy Claus: ukukhusela kwityala lesibini emva kokuba uxolelwe, ukukhusela kwityala lesibini ngenxa yetyala elinye emva kokugwetywa, nokukhuselwa kwisohlwayo eninzi ngenxa yetyala elifanayo. Ezi zikhuselwe kunye ziqinisekisa ukuba xa kugqitywe ityala, kusenjalo.

Ityatyani Igazi?

Umbuzo obalulekileyo obalulekileyo nguxa kuqalisa ubungozi. Kwinkundla zikarhulumente, ingozi idibana netyala lejaji xa ijaji ifungiswe. Kwityala lebhentshi, iyancamathela xa ingqina lokuqala lifungqwe. Eli xesha liyimfuneko ngenxa yokuba xa ityala lifakelwe, ummangalelwa usengozini esesikweni yokunyanzelwa kwaye ohlwaywa. Ukuba ityala livakaliswa ngaphambi kokuba lifakelwe engozini, ummangalelwa angaphindi aphule. Kodwa ukuba umngcipheko udibene nemithetho, kwaye ityala lesibini lisenokuvalwa ngaphandle kokuba ityala elivumelekileyo liyasebenza.

Ingozi ephindwe kabini kwiiNkundla zoManyano: Imithetho enenkcukacha

Iinkundla zomanyano zisebenzisa ukhuseleko lwengozi oluphindiweyo njengoko luchazwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Le mithetho imiswe kakuhle kwaye isoloko ithe tye, nangona ingaqhelekanga, inkqubo yengingqi iwenza lukhuni umahluko. Inkqubo yesizwe iqinisekisa kwakhona emva kokugwetywa, kungakhathaliseki ukuba urhulumente ukholelwa ukuba ityala lakhe linamandla kangakanani. Lo mgaqo waqinisekiswa United States v. Ball [1866], apho iNkukhongongongongo ePhakamileyo yayisithi i likade ligqibelele kwaye ayinakubhexelelwa.

Ukwakhiwa Kwakhona Emva Kokuqiniseka Nokubhenela

Ukuba ummangalelwa ugwetywa kwinkundla karhulumente, umngcipheko ophindwe kabini awukuvumeli ukubhenela urhulumente kwizizathu ezithile, njengeempazamo ezingokwasemthethweni ezenzeka ebudeni bokuchotshelwa kwetyala. Noko ke, ukuba ukugwetywa kwetyala kurhoxisiwe ngenxa yobungqina obunganele, eso sigqibo sisebenza njengokuvalwa, kwaye ummangalelwa akanakuphinda avunywe. Ngokwahlukileyo, ukuba ityala lipheliswa ngenxa yeempazamo ezithenjiswe ngokweempazamo (njengemiyalelo engafanelekanga yenkundla yetyala), uphinda ulwenzele uxwebhu.

Iindawo Ezikhethekileyo: Iingxaki Eziphosakeleyo Neehong Juries

Xa ukuvavanywa kuphela kwityala eliphosakeleyo, imithetho iba nzima kakhulu. Ukuba ukumangalelwa kuvakalisiwe ngemvume yommangalelwa, ukuqulunqwa kwakhona kusoloko kuvumelekile. Kodwa ukuba ityala livakaliswa ngokuphosakeleyo ngokuchasene nommangalelwa, ingozi ephindwe kabini ingaphinda ibe yeyokuba phinda ityala ngaphandle kokuba kukho imfuneko yokuqulukwa kwetyala. Imo ebonakalisayo ingumzekelo ocacileyo wokubonakalisa ukuba ufaneleke, ukuvumela urhulumente ukuba aphinde aphendule umShover. Ngokuquka umtshutshisi, apho ityala lingenakufikelelwa. Inkundla ephakamileyo kwi- iUnited States v.[[FLT:] [1824]) ifumanise ukuba i-falkthsilksi ingulotle ingumzekelo ocacileyo wokubonakalisa ukuba kuyimfuneko, ivumela ukuba i-odmist., ukququze umtshutshisialisa i-grovertiveywe yi-eart, i-earting, i-eactring, i-ectring, i-F.[2][2]

Izibheno Zikarhulumente

Umthetho womanyano umisela nzulu ummiselo wendlela urhulumente anokuyivala ityala. Urhulumente akanakusifaka isindululo sokungabi natyala, nokuba ukholelwa ukuba abachopheli-tyala babephosakele. Noko ke, urhulumente angafaka isindululo kwimithetho ethile yangaphambi kwetyala ephumela ekugxothweni kwezityholo, ukuba loo mithetho ayiyi kukwenza ukugwetywa kokuphela kwetyala. Oku kulawulwa ngu18.S.C. 76 3731, evumela ukubhenela ekugxotheni ityala okanye ekucimeni ubungqina, kodwa kuphela ukuba isibheno asisiso sokwenza uvavanyo lommangalelwa emva kokugwetywa.

Ingqwalaselo ePhityani kwiNkundla yeSizwe: Uguquko kunye noKhuselo loMgaqo-mthetho

Iinkundla zelizwe ziyawamkela amatyala aphindwe kabini okhuseleko, kodwa ezi khusela zisoloko zisuka kumgaqo-siseko wesizwe nakwimimiselo, enokunikezela ngezokhuselo ezibanzi kunomthetho worhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo ibambelele ekubeni akufuneki ukuba amazwe anikele ngomlinganiselo ofanayo wokukhusela njengoMphathi-mikhosi ophindwe kabini ka-Jeopardy Claus; amazwe angadlulisela ukhuseleko olungakumbi kubamangalelwa ngaphantsi komgaqo-siseko wabo. Oku kuyila umsebenzi wemithetho eqengqelelweyo ngaphaya kwamazwe angama-50.

Amalungiselelo omGaqo-siseko weRhulumente

Umgaqo-siseko wesizwe omninzi uqulathe amalungiselelo acacileyo omngcipheko aphindwe kabini abonisa igalelo lesizwe, kodwa amanye adlulela phambili. Umzekelo, umGaqo-siseko wase-Alaska unika ilungiselelo lokuba akukho mntu oya "kubekwa esichengeni" ukwenzela isono esifanayo, kwaye iinkundla ze-Alaska zikutolike oku ukukulungisa kwakhona emva kokusetyenziswa kwetyala kwalo mthetho, yaye inkundla zorhulumente ziyakuvumela. Ngokufanayo, umGaqo-siseko weMontana utolikiwe ukuthintela emva kokungakhathalelwa oku kubangelwe ngumtshutshisi womthetho, indawo ekhusela ngakumbi kunomgangatho osemthethweni.

Xa Ingozi Incanyathiselwa Kwienkundla Zelizwe

Ixesha lokuncamathela lingahluka ngokwesizwana. Amazwana amaninzi alandela umthetho wesizwe: udibaniso lwenza xa abachopheli-tyala besamkela ityala okanye xa ingqina lokuqala lifunyaniswe kwityala lejaji. Noko ke, amanye amaphondo aye atshintsha imithetho eyahlukileyo. Umzekelo, kwamanye amazwe, ingozi idibana xa ityala okanye ulwazi lufundwa kubagwebi, okanye xa inkundla iqalisa ukufumana ubungqina. Oku kuthetha ukuba ulandelelana lweziganeko olunye lungaphumela kwingozi ephindwe kabini kwiphondo elinye kodwa hayi kwelinye. Amagqwetha okhuselo kufuneka ajikelezwe agwetyelwe kakuhle kwimithetho ethile apho abaxhasi bawo babekwa khona icala.

Imithetho elandelelanayo kaRhulumente kwiiNto zoQuqulo-mali kunye neHung Juries

Iinkundla zelizwe zisebenzisa imilinganiselo yazo kwiinkundla eziphosakeleyo kunye nezixhotyisiweyo. Ngelixesha amaphondo amaninzi elandela umgangatho ocacileyo oyimfuneko othathwe kumthetho karhulumente, amanye aye amisela imithetho ekhethekileyo. Umzekelo, umthetho weCriminal Procediture yaseNew York unika ukuba emva kokuba inkundla ixhotyisiwe, inkundla ingavakalisa ityala eliphosakeleyo kwaye ummangalelwa asenokuphinda agwetywe, kodwa inkundla mayiqwalasele enoba abachopheli-mthetho baphulwe ngokwenene emva kokuba kuqwalaselwe ngokwaneleyo. Amanye amazwe, njengoKhalifoni, anenkcukacha ezilawula iinkundla ezingekho mthethweni kunye neemeko eziphinda zivunyelwe phantsi kwetyala. Ezi zinokuzimo zinokuchaphazela ngokuphawulekayo izigqibo ezifanelekileyo ezenziwe ngumtshutshisi-jaji nazi.

Umahluko ongundoqo phakathi kokhuselo lwengozi oluphindiweyo noloburhulumente

Ngoxa umgaqo ongundoqo ufana, umahluko ophawulekayo uvela ekudityanisweni komthetho karhulumente norhulumente. Ukuqonda le mahluko kubalulekile ekuxeleni kwangaphambili ukuba ingezi eziphindiweyo ziza kusebenza njani na.

Umda Wokhuseleko

Amanye amagunya anikela ukhuseleko olubanzi kunorhulumente wesizwe. Umzekelo, umthetho wasekuhlaleni uvumela ukwenziwa kwetyala emva kovavanyo olungekhoyo olusekelwe kwimfuneko ecacileyo, kodwa urhulumente angalungisa kwakhona kwimeko enye ukuba umgaqo-siseko wakhe ufuna ukubonakaliswa okuphezulu kwemfuneko. Ngaphezu koko, amanye amaphondo ayalela ukuvavanywa kwakhona emva kovavanyo oluphosakeleyo olubangelwa yimpazamo yeprocedtural, nokuba impazamo ayibangelwa ngurhulumente. Lo mgaqo-jikelo ubanzi ngumphumo othe ngqo wolawulo lwamazwe, oluvumela ukuba azame ngemilinganiselo eyahlukileyo yomthetho logama nje engangqubanisi ngquthela.

Imithetho Engumthetho

Ixesha kunye neemeko apho unyuko oluphindwe kabini lungahluka. Njengoko kuphawuliwe, iinkundla zorhulumente ziqhoboshela ingozi kwisifungo sabachopheli-tyala okanye ubungqina, kodwa amanye amazwe asenokudibanisa kamva okanye ngaphambili. Amazwe asenokuba nemithetho eyahlukileyo xa umtshutshisi egqalwa njengosengozini ngenxa yeenjongo zokungcwabi lwesibini emva kokuba isibongozo esinetyala sisusiwe okanye isifungo somngxuba somthetho sophulwe. Le migaqo-mthetho ingenza amathuba acwangcisiweyo ukuze amagqwetha akhuseleke ukuze aphikisane ukuba ityala lidibene kwigunya elinye kodwa hayi elinye.

Izibheno Zikarhulumente

Umthetho womanyano uthintela ukukwazi kukarhulumente ukubhena amatyala, kodwa imithetho karhulumente yahluka kakhulu. Amanye amazwana avumela abatshutshisi ukuba bafake izibheno ezithile ezithi ngokunempumelelo zishenxise umtshutshisi, njengokugxothwa kwetyala elisemthethweni, ukuba kuthatyathwe isibheno phambi kokumanyana kwengozi. Amanye amazwe awakuvumeli ukuba zonke izibheno zikarhulumente zokukhulula, zibonise ummiselo karhulumente. Amazwe afana neNew York neCalifornia anemimiselo entsonkothile echaza ukuba yiyiphi imiyalelo ebhenelwayo yintshumayelo, kwaye le mithetho isoloko ihlaziswe. Ukunga ekudluliseni amalungelo okubhenela kwinteko kuthetha ukuba ummangalelwa ogwetyiweyo enkundlekweni yelizwe angajongana nomngcipheko omkhulu wesibheno sikarhulumente kwamanye amazwe kunamanye amazwe.

I-Estopel eColletal kunye nokhuphiswano oluphambili

Ubungozi obubini bunxulumene ngokusondeleyo nemfundiso ye-literanical estopel, ethintela urhulumente ekuphindeni afumane izibakala ezagqitywayo ngaphambili. Kwinkundla zikarhulumente, i-literanceral estoppel isetyenziswa njengenxalenye yohlalutyo oluphindiweyo, njengoko imiswe kwi Ashe v. . . . .[FLT] [1970]. Iinkundla zikarhulumente zikwawusebenzisa lo mgaqo, kodwa umlinganiselo wembambano yepreclusion ungahluka. Amanye amathe ayisebenzisa ngobubanzi, i-bartums i-infontraclue kwimeko enyani enyani enziweyo kwaye igqitywe, ngexa abanye beyisebenzisa kuphela kwizinto eziyimfuneko ekwaphulweni. Olu guquko lungachaphaza ngokulandelelanayo ngenxa yetyala.

Imfundiso Yolongamo Olumanyeneyo: Imfundiso Ebalulekileyo

Mhlawumbi owona mahluko ubalulekileyo phakathi kokusetyenziswa kwemigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente neyorhulumente ephindwe kabini ubandakanya imfundiso ephindiweyo yolongamo. Le mfundiso ithi oorhulumente borhulumente norhulumente bazimele ngokwahlukeneyo, ithetha ukuba isenzo esifanayo sinokumangalelwa ngaphandle kokwaphula iingozi eziphindwe kabini. Ngamanye amazwi, umntu unokulingwa ngehambo efanayo kwinkundla yenkundla yesizwe nakwiinkundla zelizwana ngaphandle kokuba ityala lesibini livalelwe.

Imvelaphi Nendlela

Imfundiso yolongamo olubini yacaciswa okokuqala kwiUnited States v. Lanza (1922) kwaye yaqinisekiswa [. Alabama[ [85]]. Isiseko sisithi umlawuli ngamnye unemdlako ozimeleyo wokumisa imithetho yakhe. Xa ihambo yommangalelwa ingquzukisa yomabino kunye nomthetho, umlawuli ngamnye angasohlwaya ityala ityala ngaphandle kokuchaza inzala yomnye umntu. Le mfundiso ibinempikiswano kuba ijongela ityala eliphinda kabini ekucingelwa ukuba linikezele. Noko ke, iNkuNkundla isoloko iwuxhasa ngokungakumbi [FL:] kuleyo [FLD] [5]

Izizathu Ezisebenzisekayo

Imfundiso yolongamo olubini inentsingiselo enzulu kubamangalelwa. Umzekelo, umntu okhululwe ngokubulala enkundleni yetyala angabekwa ityala lokubulala okufanayo kwinkundla karhulumente ukuba urhulumente wesizwe unegunya (umz., ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho luye lwenzeka kwilizwe lorhulumente okanye lubandakanyeke ekuphulweni kwamalungelo abantu). Ngokufanayo, ukugwetywa kwenkundla yezorhulumente akumele kubekwe ityala likarhulumente. Oku kuthetha ukuba abamangalelwa banokujamelana noxinzelo, iindleko, kunye nomngcipheko wokuvavanywa kaninzi ngenxa yehambo efanayo, nto leyo kanye ecetyiwe nguPinani Jeopardy Claus Claus uce ukuze athintele. Imfundiso ingumbangokwahlukileyo ekumele ukuba abameli bacinge, ingakumbi kwiimeko ezibandakanya urhulumente nolawulo oluthelelwanolawulo olugqithislukileyo.

Imida Nezinto Ezikhethekileyo

Ngoxa imfundiso yolongamo olubini ibanzi, inemida. Ukuba oorhulumente besizwe kunye norhulumente abahlukani ngokweenjongo zabo, inkundla ingafumanisa ukuba bangoyena mlawuli mnye ngeenjongo ezimbini zengozi. Umzekelo, ukuba ingtshutshiso yelizwana ingumtshutshiso nje owenzelwe inzuzo yorhulumente, ingcebiso ephindwe kabini ingaba ityala elilandelayo. Ngaphezu koko, le mfundiso ayisebenzi kumaphondo ahlukeneyo: ukutshutshiswa ngamazwe amabini ahlukeneyo ngenxa yehambo efanayo kusoloko kuthintelwa ngengozi ephindwe kabini ngenxa yokuba amagosa agqalwa ngokwahlukeneyo, kodwa isenokuthimba ityala icebisa ukuba amatyala alandelelanayo ukuba amaphondo anezilangazelelo. Lo mthetho afuna ukuba umgaqo alungelene yaye ajongene ngononophelo oluneyo.

Izicelo Ezisebenzisekayo Zabameli Namagcisa Asemthethweni

Ukuqonda oku kungafaniyo asikokuqhelisela nje imfundo. Kwabamangalelwa abajongene nezityholo kwinkundla yorhulumente neyorhulumente, ukusetyenziswa kwemiqobo ephindwe kabini kungasifumana isiphumo setyala labo. Amagqwetha okhuselo kufuneka aliphaphele ixesha lokudibana kwengozi, imithetho ekhethekileyo yolawulo, kunye nokukwazi ukuthatha izithuba zolawulo ezibini. Ezinye iingcebiso ezingundoqo ziquka:

  • Ubuchule bokhuselo obulungelelanisiweyo: Ukuba ummangalelwa ujongene nezityholo kwinkundla yorhulumente neyaserhulumenteni ngenxa yehambo enye, ukhuseleko kufuneka aqwalasele ukuba ufuna izivumelwano zesicelo kwelinye icala elinokuphembelela elinye. Ngenxa yokuba ulawulo olubini luvumela ukuba zombini iingtshutshiso ziqhubeke, isibongozo kwinkundla yezorhulumente asizenzeki ngesiquphe ukuba kube luvavanyo lwesizwe, kwaye ngokuchasene noko.
  • [[FLT: 0] Umqheliso wokhuselo: amagqwetha okhuselo kufuneka aphume ngentshukumo zefayile ukukhupha ngokusekelwe kwingozi eziphindiweyo kwangoko, ingakumbi ukuba kukho ubungozi bokungxengxelelwa ngempumelelo. Intshukumo mayiqonde ngokucacileyo ukuba imposiso idibene na, kwaye yeyiphi imithetho yolawulo esebenzayo.
  • Iqhinga lokulungisa: Ukuba inkundla egwebayo iyayikhaba imposiso ephindwe kabini, isibheno esikhawulezileyo singafumaneka phantsi kwemfundiso yolungelelwaniso, evumela uhlolo lwezibakala ezithile ezinokuthi zibonakale ukuba zibekelwe ixesha elifutshane de emva kokuvavanywa. Oku sisixhobo esigxekayo kubamangalelwa abakholelwa ukuba ingtshutshiso yesibini ivingciso ithintelwe.
  • [[NTLAT: 0] Imiyalelo ecacileyo: Kwimeko apho umngcipheko ophindiweyo unokuba ngumba, isiluleko sokuzikhusela kufuneka sicele imiyalelo yabachopheli-tyala eyazisa abachopheli-tyala ngomqathango olinganiselweyo wesigqibo sabo. Oku kuyimfuneko ngakumbi kwiimeko apho ukugwetywa kunokuthintela ukutshutshiswa kamva kwezityholo ezinxulumeneyo.

Isiphelo: Ukuchaza Izinto Ezintsonkothileyo

Ukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini lwengozi eUnited States luyinkuselo esisiseko, kodwa ukusetyenziswa kwalo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente ezimelene norhulumente akudibani. Inkqubo yorhulumente inikela ukhuseleko oluqinileyo ekuzameni ukugwetywa emva kokugwetywa, kodwa imfundiso yolawulo olubini yenza umahluko omkhulu ovumela ukutshutshiswa ngokwahlukeneyo ngemithetho eyahlukeneyo. Iinkundla zelizwe zisoloko zinikela ukhuseleko olubanzi phantsi kwemimiselo yazo yemithetho-siseko, kodwa ezi zikhuseli ziyahluka ngokubanzile. Iingcali zomthetho kunye nabamangalelwa, ukuqonda ngokucokisekileyo oku kuyimfuneko ukuze kuphumelele ukuchotshelwa nokumiswa kwemithetho ekhethekileyo yemithetho elawulayo, ngexesha elithile, kunye nolawulo, umntu angaqhuba kakuhle umgangatho ontluntluntlukwano lwengozi oluphindiweyo kwaye aqinisekise ukuba ukukhuselwa kokuzinziswa kwe-Gamgamfaza okuziweyo kusetyenziswe ngokufanelekileyo.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga kwi [[FLT: 0] ICornell Information yolwazi lwasemthethweni yenkomfa ephindwe kabini, iNkundla yeNkundla yeSinyuko kwi Gququggl v. United States[FLT]], kunye nemiyalelo yepateni yejaji yerulathisi . Ezi zibonelelo zinika ukhokelo olugunyazi kwifontswana ezixutyulwe kweli nqaku.