Ukwakhiwa kwesizwe saseMerika kukubonakaliswa okungqalileyo kwemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko eyamiselwa ngowe-1787. Abaseki, bawaphaphele amandla agxininisiweyo kodwa bawazi kakuhle ubuchule belizwe, beyilwa inkqubo eyenzelwe ukulinganisa amandla kwisebe eliphetheyo kunye negunya elilula leBhunga. Ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, esi sakhiwo siye savavanywa yimfazwe, iinguqulelo zezoqoqosho, kunye nenkxwaleko ye-Phondo. Ukuqonda amandla akhethekileyo anikwe urhulumente wesizwe okhuselo lwesizwe kubalulekile ekuqondeni zombini intente lembali kunye nemisebenzi yanamhlanje yeUnited States.

Indaleko yembali yegunya lokhuselo lwesizwe

Utshintsho olusuka kwiNkqutyana yoMgaqo-siseko lwaqhutywa ngqo kukusilela kukarhulumente wesizwe ukukhusela izilangazelelo zohlanga. Shays's Revolution (1786-1787) lubhenca ukungakwazi kweKhomishini yokuphakamisa umkhosi okanye ukuthintela ukuvukela kweentsapho. Abaquququzeleli behlanganiselwe ePhiladelphia ukuze babumbe urhulumente okwazi ukusebenza ngamandla kunye nokuthumela ngexesha lengxaki. UAlexander Hamilton waphikisa ku-[FLT: 0] u-Federalist No.[23 u-"umele ukuba ulungelelanise isiphelo" kwaye urhulumente umele abe no "umthetho ongenakulawula" kwimikhosi elungele ukukhusela.

IRiphabliki yokuqala yajamelana neemvavanyo ezikhoyo kwiMfazwe yonyaka ka1812 kunye nemfazwe yamakhaya. Le yamva iguqulelwe ngokuyintloko igunya lorhulumente, iqinisa ubukhulu borhulumente wesizwe kwimicimbi yemvukelo yangaphakathi kwaye imisela imizekelo yamandla emfazwe abanzi aboniswa lisebe eliphetheyo. UMongameli uLincoln's uthintela amazibuko aseMazantsi, ukugqunywa kwemida ye-as corpus, kwaye ukusetyenziswa kwenkundla zomkhosi kwandisa umlinganiselo wamandla olawulo lwesizwe. Inkundla ephakamileyo kamva yamiselwa kwityala ex ekwalawulweni iMilligan [[[FLT:]] [186] [186] ifuna ukuphinda izithuba, iphethe ukuba iinkundla zemikhosi zazingenakungena mvume apho zazingavulile khona iinkundla zolawulo.

Inkulungwane yama-20 yafumana ukwenziwa okuphawulekayo kwamandla okhuselo. UMthetho weNkonzo yokuKhetha ka1917 wamisela umkhosi wesizwe wemfazwe yehlabathi. Imfazwe yehlabathi II yazisa iManhattan Project kunye nokuququzelelwa koshishino okupheleleyo. UMthetho woKhuseleko lwesizwe we-Manhattan noMgaqo-Nyuziyam weSebe loKhuselo loMkhosi ka-1947, wadlula ekuqaleni kweMfazwe Yomlomo, wahlanganisa amajoni axhobileyo phantsi komthetho omnye wokhuselo, wadala i-Arhente yoNxibeko lweNte (CII), yazamisa iBhunga loKhuselo lwesizwe (NTCC) lokulungelelanisa inkqubo yezorhwebo nelolonga-Nyubini leSebe lokhuselo loMkhosi ka-Deviko lwangowe-1986, uqinisa ulawulo lweNconga lwe-Ampty Staff kunye nolawulo lomkhosi womkhosi womkhosi womkhosi womkhosi womkhosi.

Ukuhlasela ngoSeptemba 11, 2001, kwangenisa inkqubo entsha yokuzikhusela nokhuseleko. ISigunyaziso sokusebenzisa Umkhosi (AMF) sanika igunya elibanzi lokusukela abo banembopheleleko, nto leyo eyakhokelela kuphulo lomkhosi olwengeziweyo, ukusekwa kweSebe loKhuseleko lwaseHomeland, nokuqhubeka kwengxoxo ngokulungelelana phakathi kokhuseleko nenkululeko yabemi.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko samandla okhuselo lwesizwe

UmGaqo-siseko ubala amagunya emfazwe ngohlobo lwangabom olubonisa injongo yabaseki yokubeka igunya kwisebe lowiso-mthetho kunye nelolawulo. Olu lwahlulo lwenzelwe ukukhusela izenzo zomkhosi ezingajongwanga mntu ngeli lixa urhulumente eqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente uzakusabela ngokunempumelelo kwizisongelo.

Indima Yengqungquthela: Ukuvakalisa Nokuxhasa Imfazwe

Inqaku I, iCandelo lesi-8 loMgaqo-siseko linika iNgqungquthela amandla "okwenza imfazwe, ukunika iiLeta zeMarque neReprisial, kwaye yenza iMithetho eMalunga neCandelo eMazweni namanzi.. IBhunga ligunyaselwe "ukuxhasa nokuxhasa imikhosi yemikhosi" (Cl. 12) kunye "okugcina nokugcina uMkhosi wamanzi" (Cl. 13). Amandla "okwenza uRhulumente noMkhosi woRhulumente kunye noMkhosi wamanzi"IBhunga lomkhosi" (Cl. 14) umisela igunya lolawulo lomkhosi lolawulo lwemikhosi yemikhosi ngemithetho ye-Rhulumente ye-Rhulumente (UCMJ). Ngaphezu koko, ulawulo lweziqweqwene zemali.NX.NT.NX.N.Q.N.

Indima yegunya: Umyaleli kwiNtloko

Article II, Icandelo 2 lichaza uMongameli njengoMlawuli kwiNkulumbuso yoMkhosi noMkhosi wamanzi waseUnited States, kunye noomkhosi xa bebizelwa kwinkonzo yokwenene. Esi sibizo siphakamisa ingunduna ye-Mongameli enegunya elipheleleyo kwimisebenzi yomkhosi kunye nolwalathiso lwequmrhu. UMongameli ukwanamandla okumisela amagosa emikhosi, izivumelwano (ngecebiso nemvume yeCantene,) kwaye wamkela ii-ofisi, ezibumbanisa ulawulo nokhuseleko lwesizwe. Uxinzeleko oluphakathi kwamandla omkhosi wokuvakalisa imfazwe kunye namandla olawulo oluphezulu lwemfazwe luyimbonakalo yomthetho wesizwe waseMelika.

IJackson's Triparete Frames

Uluvo oluqukuqelayo lweJaji Robert Jackson ku uluvo lwabaselula Phepha & Tube Co. Sawyer (152) lunika eyona nkqubo inempembelelo yokuqonda ulungelelwaniso lwamandla olawulo kunye nomthetho kukhuseleko lwesizwe. Jackson wachaza iindidi ezintathu zesenzo somongameli:

  • "UMGUMBI: Xa uMongameli esebenza ngolu hlobo okanye ngokuthethwa kogunyaziso oluvela kwiKhonkxa, amandla akhe aphezulu, aquka igunya lakhe lomgaqo-siseko kunye naliphi na iBhunga eligunyazisiweyo.
  • [[UMTLL:0] (Z2: Xa uMongameli esebenza kukungabikho kwesivumelwano esinika okanye ukukhanyelwa kwegunya, uxhomekeke kuphela kumandla akhe azimeleyo, edala u "Ummandla wokutshona kwemini" apho ukusasazwa kwegunya kungaqinisekiswanga.
  • [[UMTL:0] {2} Xa uMongameli esenza ngokuchasene nokuthanda okucacileyo okanye okucetyiswayo kweKhosare, amandla akhe asezantsi, kwaye iNkundla idla ngokubetha isenzo sakhe.

Umhlaba ophezulu weziko langoku lokhuselo lwesizwe

Urhulumente wesizwe namhlanje ulawula ukhuseleko lwesizwe ngesakhiwo esikhulu sokudibana. Umbutho ngamnye uneembopheleleko ezikhethekileyo zomthetho ezifak ’ isandla kukhuseleko lwesizwe siphela.

Isebe lokhuselo (DoD)

I-DoD liziko lamandla omkhosi. Isebenza nge-Ofisi kaNobhala wokhuselo (OSD), iziNtloko eziManyeneyo zoMphathi-mikhosi (JCS), kunye neshumi elinesithandathu esimanyeneyo soMyalelo woNxulumano (COCOM). I-COCOM nganye ijongene nommandla othile womhlaba (umz.S. U-U.S. uLawulo lwe-I-Intecreance) okanye ummandla osebenzayo (umz., u-U.S. umyalelo we-Cyber, U.S.S.). I-Goldwater-Nichols Act yomeleza umtya wokusebenza (umnxeba welizwe, usebenza ngqo ukusuka kuMongameli kuMkhosi ukuya kuSosiba-Mkhosi womkhosi womkhosi we-Costant.

ISebe loKhuseleko lwasekhaya (DHS)

I-DHS yasekwa ngo-2002, yadibanisa amaqumrhu angama-22 karhulumente ukukhusela ilizwe lawo ekuhlaseleni abanqolobi, ukulawula imida, nokuphendula kwiintlekele zemvelo. Iindawo ezingundoqo ziquka iCstoms kunye ne-Forders Protection (CBP), i-Immigration and Customs Enforcementmentmentment (ISTE), i-Forgateant Security Agency (TSA), kunye ne-Federal Eme Meme Managementment (FEMA).

Uluntu olunobuntlola

UMlawuli weSizwe sobuntlola (DNI) uququzelela amasuntswana ali-18 oLuntu loBuntlola base-U.S. abaquka i-CIA, i-Arhente yoKhuseleko lweSizwe (NSA), i-Arhente yokhuselo lobuNcedo (DIA), kunye ne-Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). I-NSA inobuchule kwimiqondiso (SINT), kunye nesiqinisekiso solwazi, ngelixa i-CIA iqokelela ubukrelekrele babantu (HT) kunye nezenzo ezigqubububububungelayo ngoko kulawulo lukaMongameli.

Ezinye Iimeko Ezimandundu

ISebe leSebe loRhulumente lilawula ulwalamano lwezobuzwe, iinkqubo zoncedo lwamanye amazwe, kunye neengxoxo zesivumelwano ezisisiseko iinkqubo ezisebenza njengeNATO. ISebe leMimandla lijonge izixhobo zenyukliya ezigcinwe kwiNational Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) kwaye lilawula imigudu yokungaphili ubomi. IBhunga loKhuselelo lweSizwe (NSC), kwi-Ofisi yeGunya likaMongameli, lisebenza njengentloko yomanyano lokhuseleko lwesizwe.

Isakhiwo soMthetho esilawula ukhuselo lwesizwe

Iingqungquthela zimisela inkqubo yokuzikhusela ngokugunyazisa nokuhlawula iindleko zonyaka, nangemimiselo ekhethekileyo echaza imida yenyathelo eliphambili.

UMthetho woGunyaziso loMkhosi weSizwe (NDAA)

I-NDAA yimali yonyaka egunyazisa uqingqo-mali kunye nenkcitho yeSebe loKhuseleko. Imisela iinkqubo kumgangatho wabasebenzi, iinkqubo zokufumana izixhobo, ulwakhiwo lwemikhosi, nezinto eziphambili ekusetyenzweni kwazo. I-NDAA ibidluliselwe nyaka ngamnye ukususela ngowe-1961 kwaye iyisithuthi esingundoqo sokujongana kwemicimbi yokuzikhusela.

Isigqibo Semfazwe Sowe - 1973

Igqithe kuMongameli Nixon's kwimfazwe yasemva kwemfazwe yaseVietnam, iWar Powers Resolution (50 U.S.C. 1541-1548) ifuna ukukhangela amandla kaMongameli okufaka i-U.S. imikhosi exhobileyo ngaphandle kwemvume yengqungquthela. Ifuna uMongameli ukuba adibane neKhomishini phambi kokuba aqalise imfazwe, anikele ingxelo kwiBhunga elikwiyure ezingama-48 zokwazisa imikhosi, kwaye arhoxe imikhosi ngeentsuku ezingama-60 (ngokwandiswa kweentsuku ezingama-30) ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga ligunyazise ukusetyenziswa komkhosi okuqhubekayo.

Izigunyaziso Zokusetyenziswa komkhosi womkhosi (AMF)

I-2001 AUMF[FF:1] yanika uMongameli igunya lokusebenzisa "onke amandla afunekayo nafanelekileyo" kumazwe, imibutho, okanye abantu abanxulumene nohlaselo lwe-9/11. Lo mthetho ucatshulwe njengesiseko esisemthethweni somkhosi eAfghanistan, Iraq, Syria, Somalia, Yemen, nakwezinye iindawo. Ngowama 2002 AUMF wagunyazisa ngokukhethekileyo ukusetyenziswa kwamandla ngokuchasene ne-Iraq. Ukuhambana kwengxoxo kumbindi wengqungquthela nokuba ngabazakhelo okanye ngabavusenzi bobubanzi.

Umthetho wobuntlola bamazwe angaphandle (FISA)

IFISA imisela iinkqubo zophando lwamandla angaphandle kunye nee-odoli zayo ezingaphakathi kwe-United States. Yadala iNkundla yobuNcukubhede beMasipala (FISC) ukuze ihlole izicelo ezifunwayo. IFISA ilungiswe izihlandlo ezininzi, ngokungakumbi ngoMthetho wePatriot kunye noMthetho weSindululo se-FISA ka-2009, kwaye ihlala iyindawo ephambili yengxoxo ngokhuseleko nokhuseleko lwesizwe.

Imiqathango Yezeejaji Nokhuseleko Lwesizwe

Ngokuqhelekileyo ijaji ithobela amasebe ezobupolitika kwimibandela yecebo lomkhosi nenkqubo yamanye amazwe, kodwa iye yagunyazisa igunya layo lokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nokunyanzelisa imida yesakhiwo kumandla.

Iziganeko Zangaphambili

Ex e Milligan (1866], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi inkundla yomkhosi ayinakuzama abemi xa iinkundla zorhulumente zivulekile kwaye zisebenza. United States v. Curtiss-Wright Export Corp.[FL:3] [193], iNkundla yaqonda ukuba uMongameli lilungu "lonke lorhulumente worhulumente wangaphandle kwimicimbi yangaphandle" kwaye inamandla abanzi kwimicimbi yangaphandle yamazwe angaphandle.

Ulawulo

HAmdi v. [Fumsfeld [2004], iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ummi wase-U.S. uvalelwe njengotshaba unelungelo lokulwa olufanelekileyo kwinkqubo efunekayo nethuba elinentsingiselo lokukhuphisana nesiseko esiyinyaniso sokuvalelwa kwakhe. Boumediene v. Bush [2008], iNkuvunyelelwa ukuba ababambeli bamanye amazwe ababambe eGuantmo Bay banelungelo lomgaqo-siseko wokufumana i-habeas pus. Ezi meko ziqinisekisa ukuba i-judiary igcina indima ekuqinisekiseni igunya lokuphatha impahla, kwana ngexesha lokuxhobisa, ngexesha longquzulwano.

Imisebenzi yolawulo lweziko elisemthethweni ejolise ekujoliseni amaxhoba, kuquka nokusetyenziswa kwamagorha ajongene nabagrogrisi abarhanelwayo, iphenjelelwe yimithetho, imiyalelo yezolawulo kunye nokuvavanywa kwezomthetho. "Iimfihlelo zomthetho" ilungelo, imfundiso emileyo, kunye nemfundiso yemibuzo yezobupolitika idla ngokulinganisela amandla eenkundla okuva ucelomngeni kwimisebenzi ethile yomkhosi.

Umanyano noKhuseleko lweSizwe

UmGaqo-siseko ulondoloza indima ebalulekileyo kumazwe akhusela urhulumente ngenkqubo yamajoni esizwe kunye neNkqutyana I, ICandelo 8, uClaus 15 unika iNkqutyana amandla "yokubiza uMkhosi ukuba uphumeze imithetho ye-Union, uthintele ukukhuthuza nokugxotha iNtloko." Iindawo 16 ezigciniweyo kumazwe ukumisela amagosa kunye nokuqeqesha amaqela ngokomlinganiselo we-athom.

Namhlanje, uKhuselo lwesizwe lusebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yokubhaliswa okubini. Kwimeko yombuso (isiHloko 32), uKhuseleko luyalelwa yirhuluneli yesizwe yaye lungasetyenziswa kwimeko yongxamiseko yasekhaya. Kwimeko yorhulumente (isihloko 10), uMgaqo uthunyelwa kwinkonzo karhulumente kwaye uphendule kwimiqathango yesizwe. UMthetho weInsurection ka-1807, kunye nokulungisa okulandelayo, kulawula igunya likaMongameli lokusebenzisa amajoni orhulumente (kuquka umkhosi) ukucinezela ukruquzelela ungquzulwano nomthetho wesizwe phakathi kweUnited States. Umthetho wePosse Comititus Act ka1878 udla ngokunqanda uMkhosi noMkhosi womkhosi womkhosi ekuqhubeni umthetho, ukuxhasa ukwahlulwa komkhosi wezomkhosi wasemkhosini.

Isiseko soqingqo-mali kunye neqhinga lokhuselo

Uqingqo-mali lokhuselo lukarhulumente lungolunye lwezigaba ezinkulu zemali yeqhinga, ezingaphezulu kwamawaka ezigidi zee-$800 ezigidi ngonyaka. Oku kusetyenziswa kwemali yoqingqo-mali, imisebenzi kunye nokugcinwa kwezixhobo, ukufunyanwa kolwazi, uphuhliso, kunye nolwakhiwo lomkhosi. Umjikelo woqingqo-mali wokhuselo ubandakanya i-DoD, i-Ofisi yoLawulo kunye noHlahlo-mali (OMB), kunye neNgqungquthela, ezibonisa inkqubo encedisanayo yokubeka izinto eziza kuqala kunye noovimba abaziimali.

Isiseko soshishino lokhuselo sixhasa uphando, uphuhliso, kunye nokuveliswa kwezixhobo. Ukugcina isiseko soshishino esiqinileyo kuyinto ephambili yesizwe, njengoko iqinisekisa ukuba amandla okuvelisa imveliso enyukayo ngamaxesha obunzima. ISebe lokhuselo likwalawula uthungelwano olukhulu lwezixhobo ezixhasa imisebenzi yehlabathi lonke.

Iingxaki zangoku eziphelisa amagunya okhuselo

Izisongelo zomhlaba kunye notshintsho lobugcisa zibangela utshintsho olungundoqo kwindlela karhulumente wesizwe yokukhusela.

Ukhuphiswano Olunamandla

2022 Ubuchule bokhuselo lwesizwe buchaza ngokusesikweni ukutshintshwa ukusuka kulawulo lobuphekula ukuya kukhuphiswano olukhulu lwamandla neRiphabliki yaBantu yaseTshayina naseRashiya. Esi sikhonkwane sifuna amandla amatsha, ulwenzeko olunzulu, kunye nokudityaniswa kwemiqathango kuwo onke amaphondo.

Ukhuseleko nesithuba

ICyberspace ivele njengendawo ekhuphisanayo yolawulo lweCyber yase-U.S. iqhuba imisebenzi ehlab'emgangathweni neyokhuselo ukukhusela izilangazelelo zohlanga. Ukumiselwa koMkhosi wesithuba wase-U.S. ngo-2019 kwaziwa ukuba isithuba singummandla owahlukileyo wokulwa imfazwe, ujolise ingqalelo ekukhuseleni iitellite kunye nokuqinisekisa inkululeko yokufikelela kwisithuba.

Ukubuyiselwa kobugcisa

Ubukrelekrele obenzileyo, iinkqubo zokuzilawula, izixhobo ezigqithiseleyo, kunye namandla alawulwayo aphinda aguqule uphawu lwemfazwe. ISebe lokhuselo limisele inyathelo elifana neZiko lobuntlola elidibeneyo (JAIC) ukuqhubela phambili ukudityaniswa kwe-IA kumsebenzi womkhosi. Ukuqinisekisa ukusetyenziswa kwendlela efanelekileyo nenoxanduva kobu bugcisa kuyinto ephambili.

Iingozi Zemozulu Neengozi Zamazwe Ngamazwe

Ukutshintsha kwemozulu kuya kuqashelwa njengesixhobo esisongelayo esinokuthi sibangele ingxabano, ukunqongophala kwabemi, kunye nezibonelelo zomkhosi ezidibeneyo. IDoD idibanise imozulu nenkqubo yayo. Ubugrogrisi, iindyikitya zokuhlasela, kunye neenkqubo zokurhwebelana okungekho mthethweni ziyaqhubeka zifuna ukungabikho koluntu kunye nentsebenziswano yezizwe ngezizwe.

Isiphelo

Indima karhulumente karhulumente worhulumente wolu khuselo lwesizwe ayimi ndawonye; lulungelelwaniso olunamandla olubunjwe ngumGaqo-siseko, umthetho wezomthetho, ukutolika kwezasemthethweni, kunye neemfuno zokusingqongileyo okulungeleleneyo. Amandla achazwe ngowe-1787 ahlala elilitye, kodwa ukusetyenziswa kwawo kuye kwasulungekiswa ukutyhubela iinkulungwane zeqhinga. Njengoko kuvela izisongelo ezintsha kunye nobuchule bokuyila, ucelomngeni olungundoqo luhlala lunjalo: ukubophelela amandla apheleleyo karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente wolawulo ukukhusela uhlanga ngoxa kugcinwa inkululeko yesiseko esichaza.