Table of Contents

Ukhuseleko olulinganayo lisiseko somthetho-siseko waseMerika, uqinisekisa ukuba bonke abantu bafumana ukuphathwa ngokufanelekileyo nangokulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Umgangatho olinganayo woLawulo lukaClaus weSinyuselo seshumi elinesine seSihlazo uyasebenza koorhulumente besizwe, ngelixa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U. ichaza iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuchaza i-Adth Resclement Procession Claus's Istem yoMgamfako-mthetho ka-mthetho ka-Xanduva ukuba ifune ukukhuselwa ngokulinganayo kurhulumente karhulumente. Ukuqonda indlela yokuvuma ukuchasana kwalo mgaqo-siseko kubalulekile ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu, ukukhuthaza okusesikweni, nokugcina imigaqo yoorhulumente efuna ukuchasana, ukuvavanywa kwezenzo ezicacileyo zolwaphulo-mthetho ezichuliweyo zokuphathwa ngokungenamdlaka.

Ukuqonda Ukhuseleko Olulinganayo LukaClaus

Ikhuthazwe emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya ngo1868, i-Avincible Protection Claus yayijoliswe ukumisa iimeko ekukhetheni abantsundu, kodwa umbhalo kaClaus ubekwe ngokubanzi kwaye uthathelwe indawo ukusuka kwinjongo yawo yantlandlolo. Le ngxelo ithi akukho rhulumente eya kuthi "ifaneleke kumntu onegunya lokukhusela imithetho ngokulinganayo. Eli binzana libonakala lilula libangele ukucaciswa okubanzi komthetho kunye nokusetyenziswa kwayo ngaphezu kweminyaka eli-150.

Ibinzana elilinganayo lokhuseleko libalulekile ekukhuseleni amalungelo abantu. Liye lasebenza njengesiseko sezigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo ezaphelisa ukwahlukana ngokohlanga, amalungelo okuvota, ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo obufanasini, kunye nokwandisa amalungelo omtshato kwizibini ezifanayo. Eli binzana limela idinga lokuphatha abantu ngokufanayo abakuma ngokwendawo efanayo nokuthintela izenzo zobugqwebedu okanye zolwaphulo-mthetho.

Umlinganiselo Wokhuseleko Olulinganayo

Ngoxa ekuqaleni i-Umeal Protection Claus iye yagxininisa kucalucalulo lobuhlanga, iye yanda ukuze ikhusele abantu abathile kucalucalulo olusekelwe kwiinkalo ezininzi. Isizwe nemvelaphi yesizwe zirhanelwa, kodwa iNkundla ikwakholelwa ukuba ubufanasini, ukufuduka, nokuma kweqhina lomtshato kufanelekile ukuba kufanelwe ukuba kubonwe ukuba kumiselwe imigaqo ethile. Umlinganiselo wokukhusela othe kratya uyaqhubeka ubonakala njengoko iinkundla ziqwalasela imibuzo emitsha ngokuphathelele ukuba ngawaphi amaqela afanelwe kukunyangwa ngokungekho mthethweni.

Asizizo zonke iintlobo zokwahlulana okusemthethweni okungangqinelaniyo, njengoko iinkundla zivumela oorhulumente ukuba bahlule abantu ukuba ucalucalulo luyiyo ngokomGaqo-siseko. Umzekelo, iimfuno zobudala kwiilayisensi zokuqhuba okanye zokuvota ziyavunyelwa ngenxa yokuba zikhonza iinjongo ezisemthethweni zikarhulumente kwaye zinxulumene ngokufanelekileyo na kwezo njongo. Umbuzo ophambili kukuba ngaba ucalucalulo lufanelekile na nokuba ngaba luphatha ngendlela efanayo abantu abamiyo ngendlela eyahlukileyo ngaphandle kokugwetyelwa ngokwaneleyo.

Iimfuno ezisisiseko zokungqina ukhuseleko olulinganayo

Ukuqaphela ulwaphuko olulinganayo lokukhusela kufuneka ukuqonda into emele iqinisekiswe ukuba isiqinisekiso somGaqo-siseko sesaphulwe. Ukuseka ulwaphulo lokhuseleko olulinganayo, umkhapheli kufuneka angqineke enomkhethe ojoliswe kudidi olubonakalayo okanye olurhanelwayo, apho iiklasi zichazwa ngeempawu zomntu othile `Ngomzekelo, isini, imbonakalo yesondo, okanye uhlanga.

Imfuneko Engagqitywanga

Enye yezona nkalo zibalulekileyo zomthetho wokukhusela olinganayo yimfuno yenjongo yocalulo. Ubungqina benjongo yocalucalulo lohlanga okanye injongo ifuneka ukubonisa ukwaphulwa kokhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus. Oku kuthetha ukuba umthetho okanye inkqubo enolwaphulo-mthetho olunesiphumo socalulo akuyomfuneko ukuba ingabi nakungavumelani nanto ngaphandle kokuba ithatyathwe ngenjongo yokukhupha ucalucalulo.

Imigaqo yokukhusela elinganayo ilinganisela kuphela izenzo ezisekelwe kuhlanga ngempazamo, kunye nemithetho echaphazela ngempazamo iqela lohlanga (ngamanye amaxesha elibizwa ngokuba ligalelo elingafaniyo) ayilawulwa kukuvavanywa ngokungqongqo. Ngokomzekelo, inzuzo karhulumente enikelweyo esekelwe kwingeniso ayinakujongwa njengeqwalaselwa ngokungqongqo kwanokuba amalungu eqela elithile lohlanga olungenalo ulwaneliseko, lo gama nje imfuneko yengeniso ingamkelwa ngenxa yezizathu zolwaphulo-mthetho.

Ngokuqhelekileyo, ucalucalulo lwenzeka ngabom xa lowo uthunywe, ubuncinane, ngokwenxalenye, ebangelwa luhlanga okanye ingcamango ekhoyo, ibala, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe yamaxhoba okuchanabeka kocalucalulo. Intshukumisa yocalulo ayifanele ibe sisizathu sodwa sesenzo, kodwa imele ibe nguthunywashe ophembelelayo.

Abantu Abafanayo Abafumanekayo

Into ebalulekileyo ekuqondeni ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo kukufumanisa ukuba abantu okanye amaqela akhoyo ngokufanayo. Ukuba amacandelo ekuthethwa ngawo angekho, akunakuba nako ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo. Olu hlalutyo lufuna ukuhlolisisa ukuba ngaba bafana kusini na abantu abathelekiswayo kuzo zonke iinkalo ezinxulumeneyo.

Ngokomzekelo, kwiimeko zocalucalulo lwemisebenzi, abaqeshwa abakwindawo efanayo banokuba ngabo banemisebenzi elinganayo, iimfaneleko, kunye neengxelo zemisebenzi. Ukuba umqeshi uphatha abaqeshwa ababini abanezimfaneleko ezifanayo ngokweemeko ezisekelwe kuphawu olukhuselweyo olufana nolohlanga okanye ubufanasini, oku kucebisa ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okufanayo. Noko ke, ukuba abasebenzi baneemfaneleko ezahlukeneyo okanye baneembali ezahlukeneyo, ukuphathwa ngendlela eyahlukileyo kusenokuthetheleleka.

Amanyathelo Amathathu Okwenza Isigwebo Sejaji

Iinkundla zisebenzisa imigangatho eyahlukeneyo yokuhlola ukuba umthetho osenokuba unika imvume kusini na. Ukuqonda la manqanaba okuhlola kubalulekile ukuze kuqwalaselwe xa izahlulo zikarhulumente zisenokwenzeka ukuba zophule imigaqo yokukhusela elinganayo. Umgangatho wokuvavanya osetyenziswayo uxhomekeke kuhlobo lolwahlulo olubandakanyekileyo nokugqiba ukuba kuya kuba nzima kangakanani na ngorhulumente ukuzithethelela izenzo zakhe.

Uphando Olungqongqo

Xa umthetho, ummiselo, okanye elinye inyathelo likarhulumente lisasaza imithwalo okanye iingenelo ezisekelwe kuhlanga, ubuhlanga, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe, iinkundla ziza kunyanzela uvavanyo olungqongqo, "uvavanyo lwecandelo", kwaye zidlulise uvavanyo olungqongqo, umthetho kufuneka ulungiswe ngokumxinwa ukuze usebenzele umdla karhulumente onyanzelekileyo. Eli lelona qondo lifuna uhlolo olunzima kwaye lisoloko lichazwa njengeliyi-"ethe mbex" ngenxa yokuba imbalwa imithetho esindayo kulo mgangatho wokuhlola.

Olu vavanyo lunye luyasebenza ukuba ulwahlulo lobuhlanga lufuna ukungenelela okanye lwenze umonakalo kwiqela lobuhlanga, kwaye uhlalutyo olungqongqo luyasebenza nokuba lululo okanye akunjalo uhlobo oluyintlukwano olusetyenziselwa ukwahlula. Oku kuthetha ukuba kwaneenkqubo ezicetyiweyo ezilungiselelwe ukucombulula ucalucalulo lwangaphambili kufuneka zihlangabezane nalo mqathalo ungqongqo.

Yonke imiqathango esemthethweni enciphisa amalungelo obuhlanga olunye ikrokreleka ngoko nangoko kwaye kufuneka ivavanywe ngokungqongqo, nokokuba, imfuneko enyanzelisayo yoluntu ngamanye amaxesha ingakuthethelela ukubakho kwemiqathango enjalo. Urhulumente uthwala umthwalo wokungqina ukuba inzala yakhe iyanyanzeleka kwaye iindlela ezikhethiweyo zilungiselelwe ngokumxinwa ukufikelela loo mdla.

Uvavanyo oluphakathi

Uhlolo oluphakathi kolawulo lusebenza kuludwe oluthile, olungakumbi olo lusekelwe kwisini sesini. Ucalulo ngokwesini kufuneka lusebenze kwiinjongo ezibalulekileyo zikarhulumente kwaye kufuneka lunxulumene ngokubhekiselele ekuphumezeni ezo njongo. Lo mlinganiselo awunyanzelisi kakhulu kunohlalutyo olungqongqo kodwa lunzima kunesiseko esiqikeleleyo.

Izenzo zorhulumente ezifuna ukukhusela ubudoda kufuneka zibonise ulungiso olunamandla olunamandla lwesenzo, kwaye ulungiso kufuneka lube lolokwenene kwaye lungaxhomekeki kwizinto ezibanzi ezithe xhaxhe ngeetalente, ubuchule, okanye izinto ezikhethwa ngamadoda namabhinqa. Oku kuthintela urhulumente ukuba angaxhomekeki kwiimeko ezithe ngqingqo okanye kwiinjongo ezimalunga nendima zobufana ukuthethelela ukuphathwa kolwaphulo-mthetho.

Impinda Esisiseko

Imithetho emininzi ivavanywa phantsi kovavanyo olubizwa ngokuba "luqikelelo lohlobo," apho nasiphi na isizathu esivakalayo nesifanelekileyo socalulo sanele ukunikezela ngomgaqo-siseko. Lo ngumgangatho olula wokuhlola kwaye usebenza kwicandelo elingabandakanyeki kumaqela arhanelwayo okanye kumalungelo asisiseko.

Ukuba abalawuli abangomalungu odidi olurhanelwayo (umz., iqela labantu bohlanga olunye), imigangatho "yokwahlula" yesiseko sokuhlola mayisetyenziswe kwiziphakamiso zabo, kwaye phantsi kovavanyo oluqikelelwayo, imigaqo-mthetho kufuneka ibe "ngengqiqo kwaye ingabi yiyo engekho ngqongqo, kwaye ihlalele kwisizathu somahluko onolwalamano olufanelekileyo nolululuvo kwinjongo yomthetho, ukuze bonke abantu abakwindawo efanayo baphathwe ngokufanayo.

Imiqondiso eCwangcisiweyo yoKhuselo olulinganayo

Ukuqonda ukuba ukuchaswa kwemigaqo yokukhusela kulingana kufuna ukuphaphazela nokunikela ingqalelo kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo zonyango.

Unyango olwahlukileyo lwenkqubo

Enye yezona mpawu zicacileyo zokwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo kuxa iqela elithile liphathwa ngendlela eyahlukileyo kwabanye ngaphandle kothetheleleko olusemthethweni. Oku kunokubonakala kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo, ukususela kwimfundo, umsebenzi ukuya kwindlu kunye nesigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho. Xa uhlola okokuba kungenzeka, khangela imizekelo apho amalungu odidi olukhuselweyo afumana ukuphathwa okungathandekiyo ngokulinganayo kunabantu abakweminye imibutho.

Imizekelo yembali ibonisa ngokucacileyo lo mgaqo. KwiMcLaurin, iYunivesithi yaseOklahoma yayamkela uMcLaurin, um-Melika waseAfrika, kodwa yayiwuthintele umsebenzi wakhe apho: kwakufuneka ahlale ngaphandle kwabo bonke abafundi ababekwiklasi nakwithala leencwadi, kwaye wayenokutya kwitheku lokutyela kuphela. Oku kucwangcisiweyo kwisakhiwo semfundo kwakumela ukwaphulwa okucacileyo kokhuseleko.

Imithetho Yokwahlukana Okusemzimbeni Nemigaqo Yokuziphatha

Ulwahlulo olugqithisileyo luyeyona ndlela icacileyo yobungqina obucacileyo benjongo yokwahlula, yaye ukuba umamkeli umisela ngokucacileyo imvume yokufumana iingenelo okanye iinkonzo kuhlanga, umbala, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe yomvuzo, okanye ulawulo lwesenzo esingalunganga esisekelwe kuhlanga, umbala, okanye kwimvelaphi yesizwe, inkqubo okanye uqheliselo olulolo hlobo lubumba ulwahlulo olucacileyo.

Le yimithetho okanye imithetho ebala abantu ngokucacileyo esekelwe kwiimpawu ezikhuselweyo. Nangona ucalucalulo olucacileyo lungaxhaphakanga namhlanje kunangaphambili, lusekho. Imizekelo isenokuquka iinkqubo ezithi ziphathe amadoda namabhinqa ngendlela eyahlukileyo, okanye imimiselo esebenzisa imilinganiselo eyahlukileyo esekelwe kwimvelaphi yesizwe. Xa udibana nomthetho okanye inkqubo ekhankanya ngokucacileyo uhlanga, ubufana, ubufana, okanye omnye umgangatho okhuselweyo kunye nomntu ochanekileyo ngokwahlukileyo, kufuneka ubuze ngoko nangoko ukuba iyaphulungela ukhuseleko olulinganayo.

Imiphumo Engacalulwanga Njengobungqina

Nangona iziphumo zokwahlula zizodwa zingangqini ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okulinganayo, kungasebenza njengobungqina obubalulekileyo benjongo yocalulo. Impembelelo ecacileyo ibaluleke kakhulu; ingekho i"stark" umlinganiselo, "impatho ayithinteli." nokokuba, xa inkqubo ivelisa iziphumo ezahlukileyo eziphawulekayo zamaqela eentlanga okanye amaqela eentlanga, oku kungagunyazisa uphando olubhekele phaya kokokuba inkqubo yamkelwe ngenjongo yokwamkelwa kwediski.

Impembelelo ebonakalisa ucalucalulo yenkqubo okanye umkhwa wobundilele obusebusweni (ngokuqhelekileyo, kodwa kungesoloko, kuboniswa ngokusebenzisa amanani) ingasetyenziswa njengenxalenye yokubonakalisa okucacileyo kwimeko yocalucalulo ngengozi. Ubungqina obungooStatistical bubonisa ukuba inkqubo echaphazela ngokungenakuthelekiswa nanto amalungu eklasi ekhuselweyo inganceda ekumiseni ukuba ucalucalulo yayingu olukhuthazayo, ingakumbi xa idityaniswe nobunye ubungqina benjongo.

Imeko Ekhethekileyo Apho Kudla Ngokungqubana

Ukuqonda imeko apho ukuchaswa kudla ngokuvela kunokukunceda ubone iingxaki ezisenokubakho phantse kulo naliphi na igalelo likarhulumente.

Imfundo

Imeko yemfundo ibisembindini wokukhusela okulinganayo ukususela kwisigqibo seBrown yenkcazo yemfundo v. Ibhodi yemfundo. Ngaphandle kwale "ixabiso" lamaziko, iNkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ukwahlukana ngokwemvelo akulingani, kwaye ngenxa yoko ucalucalulo lwesikolo sikawonke wonke olusekelwe kuhlanga lwafunyanwa luchasene noMthetho olinganayo woKhuselo lwe-14 ka-Celasko.

Namhlanje, ukwaphulwa kwemfundo ngendlela efanayo kusenokuquka ukungoneli kwemali ezikolweni ezisebenza kwiinkqubo zobuhlanga okanye zobuhlanga, ukuvunywa kocalucalulo, ukufikelela okungalinganiyo kwizifundo ezihambele phambili okanye iinkqubo zocwangciso, okanye izenzo ezahlukeneyo zokuqeqesha ezichaphazela ngokungenakulinganiswa abafundi beentlanga ezithile okanye ubufana-bhinqa. Iinkqubo zekoleji ezamkelekileyo zaphula inkqubo ye-Celt Protection Clausle xa bengenayo ingqwalaselo efanelekileyo nenjongo ezifanelekileyo ezivumela ukusetyenziswa kohlanga, ezinganqandwayo ngendlela engafanelekanga, ezibandakanya ukusetyenziswa kobuhlanga, nokunganikwa amanqaku afanelekileyo.

Imisebenzi

Ukuqeshwa okanye ukunyuselwa komgunyathi kumela izenzo ezixhaphakileyo zokwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo. Ezi zinto zinokuthatha iindlela ezininzi, kuquka ukwala ukuqesha okanye ukukhuthaza abantu abafanelekayo abasekelwe kwiimpawu ezikhuselweyo, ukuhlawula imivuzo eyahlukeneyo yomsebenzi omnye osekelwe kwisini okanye kuhlanga, okanye ukwenza iindawo ezichasayo ekusebenzeni kwamaqela athile.

Jonga imizekelo efana nabafaneleki abakwiklasi ezikhuselweyo abasoloko begqithiselwa kwiindawo ezithile okanye unyuselo oluxhasa abatsha abafanelekayo abasuka kwamanye amaqela, iimfuno zomsebenzi ezingayo enyanisweni kwisikhundla kodwa ezingakhuthazi maqela athile, okanye iinkqubo zemisebenzi eziphatha abasebenzi ngokufanayo ngokuchaseneyo ezisekelwe kwiempawu ezikhuselweyo.

Ukufumaneka kweenkonzo neengenelo

Ukufikelela ngokulinganayo kwiinkonzo zikarhulumente okanye iinzuzo kungalwaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo. Oku kunokuquka ukukhanyela amaqela athile ukuba angene kumasebe kawonke-wonke, ukubonelela ngeenkonzo eziphantsi kwimimandla ethile okanye kuluntu oluthile, okanye ukwenza iimfuno ezinokungamkeleki zeengenelo ezicalucalucalulwe kwiiklasi ezikhuselweyo.

Ngokomzekelo, ukuba isixeko sinika iipaki eziphakamileyo, amathala eencwadi, okanye ezinye iindawo zikawonke wonke ezihlala abamhlophe kakhulu ngoxa zibonelela ngeendawo eziphantsi kwimimandla encinane, oku kusenokuthetha ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okufanayo. Ngokufanayo, ukuba urhulumente ungenelela iinkqubo ezineemfuno ezifanelekileyo ezilungiselelwe ukukhupha amaqela athile eentlanga okanye amaqela eemvelaphi, oku bekuya kuphakamisa inkxalabo enzulu yokhuseleko.

Okusesikweni Kokwaphula Umthetho

Inkqubo yomthetho yolwaphulo-mthetho inika amathuba amaninzi okuphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo. Abaqhubi benqwelo-mafutha baseLatino bahluthwa amalungelo omgaqo-siseko ngenxa yokuvalelwa ngumbutho wokwandiswa komthetho oqhuba "amajoni okukhusela inzala" okanye "ukukhala" okuhlasela i-Latinos erhanelwa ukuba ikho ngokungekho mthethweni kwelo lizwe, kunye nokunyanzeliswa komthetho obandakanyeke kwinkqubo yokuzikisa i-Latinlanos ngokwesizwe.

Eminye imizekelo iquka ukugcinwa komthetho ngokusemthethweni nxamnye namaqela athile eentlanga okanye amaqela athile, izigwebo eziqatha kumalungu athile awenza ulwaphulo-mthetho olufanayo namalungu amanye amaqela, kunye noqheliselo lokukhetha amatyala okugweba ngokwezikhundla zolwaphulo-mthetho. I-Amente ISikhuseli soMgaqo-mthetho we-14th Amendment toMgaqo-siseko waseUnited States iqinisekisa ukuba ummangalelwa unelungelo lokuba agwetyelwe izityholo ezicaciweyo ngabachopheli-tyala abakhethelwe ngokukhululekileyo kwimiba okanye iindidi ezisekelwe kuhlanga, njengoko umGaqo-siseko ufuna ukuba abelu-mkeli-mgwebi-mkeli-mgwebi abanyulwa ngaphandle kohlanga abanyulwayo

Indlu kunye ne-Zoning

Imizekelo yembali iquka iminqophiso engqongqo ethintela abantu beentlanga ezithile ukuba bathenge okanye bahlale kwimimandla ethile. Nangona ucalucalulo olucacileyo ngoku lungekho mthethweni, iindlela ezichuliweyo ezingekho mthethweni zisaqhubeka.

Ukungathobeli zindlu kwangoku okunxulumene nokukhuselwa okulinganayo kusenokuquka izigqibo ezicwangcisiweyo zokungangeni zindlu kwiindawo ezithile ukuze kugcinwe umahluko phakathi kohlanga okanye kwezoqoqosho, uqheliselo lokubolekisa ngorhwaphilizo, okanye ukunyanzelisa imithetho yokungasebenzisi ngokomthetho yemithetho yezindlu. Ukucela imvume ekhethekileyo kwikhaya elicetyiweyo labantu abaphazamisekileyo engqondweni yaphulwa ngendlela efanayo, nangona abaphazamisekileyo engqondweni, njengeqela, bahlukile kwabo bahlala kwezinye iindawo ezivunyelweyo kwindawo yokuhlala.

Ukunyanzeliswa kokukhetha njengokwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo

Uhlobo oluthile lokwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo lwenzeka xa imithetho inyanzeliswa ngendlela yokuhlawulisa umthetho — ebizwa ngokuba kukunyanzela okukhethiweyo. Oku kwenzeka xa amagosa karhulumente esebenzisa imithetho yobundilele eyahlukileyo kumaqela abantu ahlukeneyo asekelwe kwiimpawu ezikhuselweyo.

Ukuqonda Inyanzelo Yokukhetha

Ukusetyenziswa okungafaniyo komthetho obonakala ungenabungozi ngamanye amaxesha kungangqubana neSikhuseli esilinganayo sikaClaus, kwaye ukungqina intengo yokukhusela okulinganayo esekelwe ekunyanzelweni komthetho, abalawuli kufuneka babonise (1) ukuba igosa likarhulumente liziphatha ngokwahlukileyo kubantu abakwindawo efanayo, (2) nokuba urhulumente akalingani ngokusebenzisa imithetho (umz., imimiselo, imithetho) ngenjongo yokuchasa abalawuli.

Imizekelo yomthetho olawulayo iquka amapolisa asoloko emisa aze aphengulule abaqhubi bolunye uhlanga kuba bephule iimoto, abahloli abanyanzelisa ukwaphulwa kwemithetho ngokungqongqo kweminye imimandla ngoxa betyeshela ukwaphula umthetho okunjalo kwezinye iindawo, okanye abatshutshisi abatyhola amalungu amaqela athile ngolwaphulo - mthetho ngoxa bengafuni ukumangalela amalungu akwabanye abantu.

Imizekelo yeentelekelelo ezinokufumaneka zokunyanzeliswa

Apho umbutho wepaki ukhetha ukungaziphandi okanye ukusukela ukuvunywa kwemvume yabemi bezindlu abami ngendlela efanayo, ngokusisiseko bengavumi ukuthatha inyathelo elisemthethweni ngokuchasene nabanye abavumi bemvume, banokuqinisekisa ukuba aba bathathi-nxaxheba baphathwa ngokukhethekileyo. Oku kubonisa indlela ukuphathwa ngokwahlukeneyo ekunyanzelweni komthetho, kwanemimiselo esemthethweni, oku kunokubangela ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okufanayo.

Apho inkampani yokwakha A yakwazi ukufumana imvume yokwakha ngempumelelo kwigumbi layo lokulala ukusuka kwingingqi de loo nkampani yaphumelela ukubeka itsheyina elincinane elincinane elisetyenziswa ngabathengi kwitsheyina lefatyi yesizwe, itsheyina levenkile yasusa igumbi layo elingaphantsi lendlu yokwakha nenkampani B, umphikisi othe ngqo wenkampani A, kunye nenkampani A amacala athe anikwa itsheyina elisezantsi levenkile, iContinent yayeka ukuvuma izicelo zayo zemvume, nangona imveliso yenkampani A yadibana nemvume yombuso kwaye yatywinwa ngoonjineli abasemthethweni belizwe. Le ndlela icebisa ukuba kunyanzeke ukugcinwa okufanelekileyo okunokwenzeka ngenxa yokuqwalasela okungafanelekanga.

Ubungqina Nobungqina Bokuba Ikhethe Lilawulwa

Ekubeni isiseko sokubonisa ucalucalulo sibalulekile ekumiseleni ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko ngendlela efanayo, ukuqonda iindidi zobungqina ezinokubonakalisa injongo ebalulekileyo yokuvuma ukwaphulwa.

Ubungqina Obungqalileyo Bokungaququzeli

Indlela ecacileyo yokungqina ibandakanya ingxelo evela kuMenzi wesigqibo obonisa intshukumisa yokwahlula-hlula. Olu luhlobo lobungqina olunamandla kodwa lunqabile, njengoko abenzi besigqibo besoloko belumkile ukuba bangachazi ncam intshukumisa yokwahlula.

Ubungqina obungqalileyo bungaquka ii-imeyili, imisebenzi, okanye iingxelo ezirekhodiweyo apho amagosa avakalisa iimbono zolwaphulo-mthetho okanye achaza ngokucacileyo ukuba athatha inyathelo ngenxa yohlanga lomntu, ubufana okanye olunye uphawu olukhuselweyo. Kwakhona bungaquka ubungqina obuvela kumangqina avile iingxelo zocalucalulo okanye ihambo yokuchasa abenzi besigqibo.

Ubungqina Obuntsonkothileyo: Iindawo Eziselunxwemeni

IArlington Heights ingumzekelo wobungqina, obusungulwe kuqala ukwenzela Imeko ze-Aumelt Protection Clause, ezisebenzisa iindidi eziliqela ezahlukeneyo zobungqina obudityanisiweyo obuthi, buthatyathwe njengeqela, bungabonisa ukuba lowo wamkelayo, ubuncinane, wasebenza ngenxa yebala, umbala, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe.

Injongo yokungachazi isenokufunyanwa nakuphoswa bubungqina obuthe ngqo bokuba abenzi besigqibo babenentshukumisa embi, kunye noothunywashe abanokubonakalisa injongo yocalulo oluquka: (1) impembelelo eyahlulayo yesenzo sasemthethweni; (2) imvelaphi engokwembali yesigqibo; (3) ukulandelelana kweziganeko okungqalileyo okukhokelela kwisigqibo esicetyisiweyo kuquka ukushiya komenzi wesigqibo kwimigaqo yayo ebhaliweyo; kunye (4) nembali yomthetho okanye yolawulo.

Xa uhlola isenzo esinokwenzeka socalulo, qwalasela ezi meko ngenyameko. Ingaba isenzo sinempembelelo engathethekiyo kwiqela elikhuselweyo? Ingaba kukho imbali yocalulo kulo mmandla okanye yale menzi wesigqibo? Ingaba umenzi wesigqibo washiya iinkqubo eziqhelekileyo ngendlela ebangela uvalo kwiqela elikhuselweyo? Ziziphi iingxelo neengxoxo ezinxulumene nesigqibo esityhilayo ngeentshukumisa?

Ubungqina Obusekelwe Kwingqokelela

Nangona amanani engenakuyingqina injongo yokungamkeli calucalulo, anokuvelisa indlela ekwakubonakala ngayo ukuba ucalucalulo lwaluye lwabangela ukuba abantu bakhethe abanye.

Ngokomzekelo, kumatyala okukhetha abachopheli-tyala, ubungqina bezibalo obubonisa ukunikezelwa kobubalulekileyo kweqela lobuhlanga bunganceda ekumiseleni ucalucalulo. Ukuseka ulwahlulo olulinganayo lokhuseleko, ummangalelwa kufuneka kuqala abonise ukuba iklasi eyahlukileyo okanye iqela elicaluliweyo licalulwe ngokuchaseneyo kwaye likhethelwe ukuphathwa ngokwahlukileyo phantsi kwemithetho njengoko ibhaliwe okanye isetyenziswe, kwaye ummangalelwa kufuneka abonise ukuba iinkqubo ezisetyenziswayo ekunyulweni kwejaji abalawuli ziphumele phantsi komngeni obalulekileyo wohlanga okanye iqela elibalulekileyo kwixesha elithile elibalulekileyo.

Imigangatho ePhambili neFlegi eziBomvu zoLawulo

Ezinye izinto ezingekho mthethweni nezenzo zolawulo zingabonisa ukuba zinokuphulwa ngendlela efanayo. Ukuphaphela ezi flegi zibomvu kunceda ekuboneni ucalulo olunokungabonwa.

Ukungabikho kokuBhalisa

Xa kungenziwa izigqibo zikarhulumente ezingekhoyo, kuba lula ukuba ucalulo luvele kwaye kube nzima ukuzibona. Ukuba amagosa ayala ukuchaza isiseko sezigqibo zawo, asikwazi ukugcina iirekhodi ezaneleyo, okanye enza izigqibo ezivaliweyo ngaphandle kokungena kwigalelo likawonke-wonke, ezi nkqubo zinokwenza unyango lokukhupha ulwaphulo-mthetho lulula.

Ukubonisa ngaphaya kwengqondo kubaluleke kakhulu xa izigqibo zichaphazela iiklasi ezikhuselweyo. Ukuba isithili sesikolo asinakusichaza isizathu sokuba sinike imali eyahlukileyo kwizikolo ezikhonza abantu abahlukeneyo, okanye ukuba isebe lamapolisa alivumi ukunikela ugcino-lwazi ngokuma kweenqwelo-mafutha ezidiliziwe luhlanga, oku kusilela kokubonakala ngokucacileyo kufuneka kuphakamise inkxalabo ngokuchaphazelekayo okulinganayo.

Iinkqubo zokwenza izigqibo ezilungisiweyo

Isakhiwo seenkqubo zokwenza izigqibo singavelisa amathuba okuba nocalucalulo. Ingqiqo engabekwanga kakuhle, engenamilinganiselo, nengalawulekiyo isenokukhokelela ekunyanzelweni kwezigqibo ezichasene neSikhuseli Esilinganayo sikaClaus, ngoko iNkundla ithe yasikhupha isiqu. Xa amagosa enegunya elingenamda ngaphandle kwemilinganiselo okanye imigaqo ecacileyo, asenokusebenzisa elo qhinga kwiindlela zolwaphulo-mthetho.

Jonga iimeko apho abenzi besigqibo benobuchule obuphangaleleyo ngaphandle kwemigaqo ecacileyo, apho kungekho zingqikelelo okanye iinkqubo zolawulo zokuqinisekisa unyango olulinganayo, okanye apho abantu abakwindawo efanayo bafumana unyango olwahlukileyo kakhulu ngaphandle kokucaciswa. Ezi meko zidala umhlaba ochumileyo ukwenzela ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okulinganayo.

Ukunduluka Kwinkqubo Ezimiselweyo

Xa abenzi besigqibo beshiya iinkqubo zabo eziqhelekileyo kwiimeko ezibandakanya amalungu odidi olukhuselweyo, oku kungabonisa injongo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Umzekelo, ukuba ibhodi efaka umthetho ixhasa iinkqubo eziqhelekileyo ezifikelela kwiingqikelelo ezithile kodwa ngequbuliso ibeka iimfuno ezongezelelekileyo xa umfaki-sicelo elilungu leqela elincinane, oku kushiya kuqheliselo oluqhelekileyo kucebisa ukuba kunokwenzeka ukuba kubekho ucalucalulo.

Ngokufanayo, ukuba umqeshi unenkqubo esesikweni yokunyusela kodwa ayiyikhuthazi loo nkqubo ukukhuthaza umntu ofanelekeleyo ngoxa engafuni ukunyuselwa kumntu ofanelekayo kwiklasi ekhuselweyo, ukungakhuli kakuhle kuxhasa ingcamango yocalucalulo.

Udidi- lwe-eyenye ingcebiso yokhuseleko

Ukhuselo olulinganayo lweClaus lunyusa unobangela wesenzo kudidi "lomnye" xa umbhinqi engaboni ukuba ngamalungu kwiklasi okanye kwiqela, kodwa uthetha ukuba baye baphathwa ngokuchaseneyo nabanye ngokukwahlukileyo kokweminye indawo kwaye akukho sizathu sifanelekileyo sonyango olunjalo.

Le mfundiso iyaqonda ukuba ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okulinganayo kunokwenzeka kwanaxa ixhoba lingalo lingelolungu lodidi olukhuselwe ngokwesithethe. Ukuba igosa likarhulumente likhetha umntu ngenxa yempatho erhabaxa okanye ngezizathu zokuziphindezela ezingahambelaniyo nayo nayiphi na injongo karhulumente esemthethweni, oku kunokulwaphula ukhuseleko olulinganayo kwanokuba ucalulo alusekelwanga kuhlanga, ubufana okanye omnye umntu orhanelwayo.

Ukuqaphela ukonakalisa kodidi, khangela iimeko apho umntu ephathwa ngendlela eyahlukileyo kubo bonke abantu abakwindawo efanayo, apho kungekho nkcazelo isengqiqweni yonyango olwahlukileyo, nalapho unyango lubonakala luphenjelelwa kukuziphindezela kobuqu, kwezobupolitika, okanye ezinye izinto ezingafanelekanga.

Uphuhliso Lwakutshanje Kumthetho Wokukhusela Olinganayo

Umthetho olinganayo wokukhusela uyaqhubeka uguquka njengoko iinkundla ziphendula imibuzo neminye imibandela emitsha. Ukuhlala wazi ngezinto ezisandul' ukuvela kunokukunceda uqonde iindlela ezivelayo zocalulo nokuqonda indlela iinkundla ezinokuyihlolisisa ngayo.

Imbonakalo Yesini Neempawu Zombulo

Enye yeempikiswano ezinkulu ngokuphathelele i-Univile Protection Claus ekhoyo namhlanje kukuba iNkundla ifanele ifumanise ukuba imbonakalo yesondo ingulwahlulo olurhanelwayo, kwaye kuluvo lwayo olufanayo lomtshato, iObergefell v. Hodges (2015), iNkundla yacebisa ukuba ukucalucalula amafanasini kunye namabhinqa angoomama kungalwaphula uKhuselo olulinganayo lukaClaus, kodwa iNkundla ayigqibanga ukuba luluphi umlinganiselo lokuhlola olufanele lusetyenziswe, ishiye lo mbuzo ongolunye usuku.

ISindululo se - 14 sifuna ukuba urhulumente avume umtshato phakathi kwabantu ababini besini esifanayo nokuba avume ukuba umtshato utshate phakathi kwabantu ababini besini esifanayo xa umtshato wabo ugunyaziswa ngokusemthethweni yaye usenziwa ngaphandle kwesizwe. Oku kubonisa ukwanda okuphawulekayo kwemigaqo yokukhusela efanayo, nangona imibuzo engekaphenduliswa ngokuphathelele ucalucalulo lwesini kwezinye iimeko.

Isenzo sokuqinisekisa kunye neenkqubo zohlanga

Umgaqo-siseko weenkqubo zobuhlanga ezizizilumkiso ezilungiselelwe ukucombulula ucalucalulo oludlulileyo okanye ukukhuthaza iinguqu zihlala zinengxabano. Iinkqubo zekholeji ezayaphula i-Univity Protection Clause xa zingenayo ingqwalaselo efanelekileyo nenjongo ezinokuxhotyiswa ezivumela ukusetyenziswa kohlanga, uhlanga olusetyenziswa ngendlela engalunganga, lubandakanya ukuqwalasela ucalulo lweentlanga, kwaye lungenazo iingongoma ezinentsingiselo.

Xa zihlola iinkqubo zobuhlanga eziziphapheleyo, iinkundla zifuna ubungqina obunamandla bocalucalulo lwexesha elidlulileyo nobuxinzeleleyo ukuphendula olo calulo lungqalileyo. Iinkqubo ezixhomekeke kwizithethe eziqhelekileyo zobuhlanga, ezingenazinjongo zicacileyo, okanye eziqhubeka ngokungenasiphelo zisenokufunyanwa zingekho semthethweni.

Amanyathelo Asebenzisekayo Okubona Ukwaphulwa Kwendlela Yokuzikhusela

Ukwazi imigaqo elinganayo yokukhusela, unokuthabatha amanyathelo acacileyo okubona ukuba usenokuba waphulwa ngabantu abakuwo okanye emsebenzini.

Uxwebhu Lonyango Olwahlukileyo

Gcina iingxelo zocoselelo lwendlela abantu abaphathwa ngayo okanye amaqela ahlukeneyo. Ukuba uphawula ukuba amalungu odidi olukhuselweyo asoloko efumana ukuphathwa kakuhle okuncinane, amaxwebhu achaza iziganeko ezithile ezinemihla, amagama, kunye neenkcukacha. Jonga imizekelo elandelelanayo kwixesha kunokuba iziganeko ezizodwa, njengokuba ucalucalulo olucwangcisiweyo lubonakala lula kuneziganeko zexesha elinye.

Collect data when possible. If you suspect discriminatory hiring practices, gather information about the qualifications of applicants and who was hired. If you believe law enforcement is engaging in selective enforcement, compile statistics on who is stopped, searched, or arrested. Concrete data can be powerful evidence of discrimination.

Thelekisa Unyango Lwabantu Abafanayo

Chaza abantu okanye amaqela akwimeko efanayo ngaphandle kwamalungu abo kudidi olukhuselekileyo. Thelekisa indlela abaphathwa ngayo. Ukuba kukho umahluko omkhulu ekunyangweni okungenakuchazwa ngoonobangela abasemthethweni, abangengobasemthethweni, oku kucebisa ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okufanayo.

Xa uthelekisa, khawuqwalasele zonke izinto ezinokuba luncedo, ezifana neemfaneleko, amava, umsebenzi, okanye iimeko. Okukhona abantu okanye amaqela ethelekiswa, kokukhona kusiba namandla ngakumbi ukucalucalulwa xa bephathwa ngendlela eyahlukileyo.

Inkqubela yokwenza isigqibo

Uphando ngendlela eyenziwa ngayo izigqibo. Ingaba zicacile, zikho iinjongo, okanye ngaba abenzi besigqibo banengqiqo engenasiphelo? Ingaba izigqibo zibhaliwe kwaye zicaciswe? Ingaba kukho uphando okanye uhlolo lokuqinisekisa unyango olulinganayo? Iinkqubo zokungabonakalisi, imilinganiselo ecacileyo, okanye ukuphendula kulula ukufikelela ekusebenziseni ucalucalulo.

Ukucela iingxelo zikawonke-wonke xa kufanelekile. Izigqibo ezininzi zikarhulumente zixhomekeke kwimithetho karhulumente, kwaye ukuhlolisisa amaxwebhu akwisigqibo esithile kungabonisa ukuba ucalulo luye lwadlala indima ekhoyo kusini na.

Funa uhlalutyo lobungcaphephe

Imibuzo entsonkothileyo yokukhusela idla ngokungenelwa kuhlalutyo olunengcali. Iingcali zengqokelela yezibalo zingayihlalutya inkcazelo ukuze zibone enoba ukwahluka okujongwayo kunokwenzeka ngamabona - ndenzile okanye kucebisa ukuba iinqobo ezikhoyo zinokubangelwa lucalucalulo.

Imibutho yamalungelo abemi isoloko inobuchule ekuboneni nasekuceleni ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo. Ukuba ukrokrela ucalulo, qwalasela ukufikelela kwiintlangano ezifana ne- izibonelelo zamakhaya aseMelika , i- i-DNAACP Ukhuselo loMgangatho-mthetho[, okanye amaqela afana nalo anokukwazi ukuphanda nokuthatha inyathelo.

Iindlela Zokukhusela Ezilinganayo Ezisemthethweni

Xa umntu ekholelwa ukuba urhulumente okanye urhulumente welizwe ude wawaphula amalungelo awo alinganayo aqinisekisiweyo, loo mntu uyakwazi ukumangalela iqumrhu likarhulumente ukuze afumane uncedo. Ukuqonda amayeza akhoyo kunokukunceda uqonde xa kufanelekile ukuthabatha inyathelo elingokwasemthethweni.

Ukufumana Uncedo Olungacombululiyo

Iinkundla zingayalela amaqumrhu karhulumente ukuba ayeke uqheliselo localulo aze azalisekise iinkqubo zokuqinisekisa ukuba ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo kuya phambili. Isiqabu esitsha sisenokuquka imiyalelo yokutshintsha imisebenzi yokuqeshwa, imigaqo yokuguqula, ukubonelela ngeenkonzo ezifanayo, okanye ukwenza ezinye izenzo zokulungisa ucalucalulo nokuthintela ukwaphulwa kwekamva.

Kwimiba ecwangcisiweyo yocalulo, iinkundla zisenokumisela izicwangciso zokulungisa ezifuna ukujongwa nokuxelelwa okuqhubekayo. Umzekelo, kumatyala abandakanya ukhetho lwabachopheli-tyala, iinkundla ziye zayalela utshintsho kwiinkqubo zokukhetha kwaye zifuna ingxelo rhoqo equlunqwe liziko lohlanga lwamaqula abachopheli-tyala.

Umonakalo

Amaxhoba okwaphulwa kwendlela efanayo yokukhusela asenokufanelekela umonakalo wemali ukuze ahlawule umonakalo owenziwe ngenxa yocalucalulo. Oku kunokuquka imbuyekezo yomvuzo olahlekileyo okanye iingenelo, udandatheko, nezinye iingozi ezibangelwa kukuphathwa kakubi.

Kwezinye iimeko, iziphumo zokohlwaya zisenokufumaneka ukusohlwaya ngokukodwa ucalucalulo olungenamdla kwaye kuthintelwe ukwaphulwa kwexesha elizayo. Noko ke, ukufumaneka komonakalo kuxhomekeke kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo, kuquka ukuba ummangalelwa unelungelo lokhuseleko kusini na kunye nezityholo ezithe ngqo ezimiselwe ngumthetho.

Ukubhengeza

Iinkundla zinokukhupha izindululo zokuba imithetho ethile okanye imikhwa iyangqubana. Ngoxa izigwebo zokukhupha isihlwayo ngokwazo zingafuni nyathelo lithile, zimisela amalungelo asemthethweni amaqela yaye ngokufuthi zikhokelela kwiinguqu kwimigaqo okanye kwindlela aqhelisela ngayo.

Isicombululo sokuvakalisa sinokuxabiseka ngokukodwa xa ufuna ukuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho okanye inkqubo ayimiselwanga, njengoko icacisa iimbopheleleko ezingokwasemthethweni kwaye ingasebenza njengesiseko senyathelo elibhekele phaya ukuba umbutho karhulumente awuphumeleli ukuthobela.

Ukubaluleka Kokuhlala Uthe Ngqo Ekukhuseleni Amalungelo Alinganayo Okukhusela

Ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko okulinganayo kusenokuba yinto engabonakaliyo kwaye kusenokungabi cacileyo ngoko nangoko. Ukuqapha kubalulekile ukuphawula nokulungisa ucalulo ngaphambi kokuba luqiniswe. Ngokuqonda imigaqo echazwe kule sikhokelo, ungaqonda bhetele xa amalungelo alinganayo okhuseleko ephulwa aze athathe inyathelo elifanelekileyo.

Khumbula ukuba ukhuseleko olulinganayo alungomgaqo osemthethweni nje kuphela kodwa luzibophelele kubulungisa nesidima sabantu. Bonke abantu bafanele baphathwe ngokulinganayo phantsi komthetho, ngaphandle kocalulo olusekelwe kuhlanga, kwisini, kwimvelaphi yesizwe, okanye kwezinye iimpawu ezikhuselweyo. Ngokufunda ukuphawula ukwaphulwa kwalo mgaqo, unegalelo kumsebenzi oqhubekayo wokwakha ibutho labantu elinobulungisa nelinobulungisa nelilinganayo.

Ubandakanyeko Nobuchule Boluntu

Kubalulekile ukuba umntu ngamnye aqonde, kodwa kufuneka asebenze kunye ukuze athethe nolwaphulo-mthetho olulinganayo lokukhusela. Zihlanganise noluntu lwakho ukuze uchaze iindlela zocalulo nokhuthazo.

Imigaqo-nkqubo nezenzo ezikhuthaza ukuphathwa ngendlela efanayo kwaye zigcina amagosa karhulumente ebeke ityala ngezenzo zolwaphulo-mthetho. Banike abo bamisela amalungelo asekuhlaleni nenkuselo efanayo. Sebenzisa ilizwi lakho ukugxeka ucalucalulo nokuxhasa abo balwela amalungelo abo okukhusela alinganayo.

Imfundo nokulumkiswa

Abantu abaninzi abawazi amalungelo abo okanye indlela yokubona ukuba aphulwa nini loo malungelo. Ngokufundisa abanye, unceda ekuveliseni abemi abanolwazi olungakumbi olukwaziyo ukuwabona nokuwacel ’ umngeni amalungelo abo.

Ukuxhasa iinkqubo zokufundisa ulutsha ngamalungelo omgaqo-siseko nokubaluleka kokukhuselwa ngendlela efanayo. Okukhona abantu beyiqonda le migaqo, kokukhona kuba nzima ukunyamezela ucalucalulo.

Isiphelo

Ukubona ukwaphulwa kokhuseleko olulinganayo kufuna ukuqonda imigaqo esemthethweni elawula lo mmandla kunye neempawu ezisebenzisekayo zocalulo. Ukusuka kwimithetho echaphazelekayo yocalulo olubumfantama okanye kwiindlela zokunyanzelisa abalawuli abachopheleyo, ukwaphula umthetho ngokulinganayo kuthatha iindlela ezininzi. Ngokufunda ukuchaza indlela yobuchule eyahlukeneyo yokuphatha, uhlole iinkqubo zokwenza izigqibo zokucalula, uqokelela ubungqina benjongo yokuchasa, nokuqonda umongo apho ukuchasana kudla kwenzeka khona, ungawakhusela ngakumbi amalungelo akho nawe abo banye nabanye.

I-Acticom Protection Claus imela enye yezona mbopheleleko zethu zibalulekileyo zomGaqo-siseko ``isithembiso sokuba bonke abantu baza kuphathwa ngokufanelekileyo nangokulinganayo phantsi komthetho. Nangona esi sithembiso singasoloko sizaliseka, kwaye umsebenzi usaqhubeka ulungisa ucalucalulo oluqhubekayo, izixhobo nemigaqo echazwe kweli sikhokelo inika isiseko sokuvuma ukuchaswa nokufuna okusesikweni. Ukuba ungummeli oxhalabisayo, ummi, okanye umntu oye wacaluswayo, oqonda indlela yokuchaza ukuchasana okulinganayo kusekwe kuqinisekisa ukuba esi siqinisekiso somgaqo-siseko siyinto yokwenene kubo bonke.

Ukuze ufumane ulwazi oluninzi ngamalungelo asekuhlaleni nokhuseleko olulinganayo, tyelela i U.S. Isebe leJaji lamaLungelo e-ovile okanye jongana negqwetha elifanelekileyo lamalungelo oluntu elinokunika ukhokelo olungqalileyo kwimeko yakho. Khumbula ukuba ukhuseleko olulinganayo aluzitshabalalisi ngokwalo, kufuneka abemi abalumkileyo abakulungeleyo ukuvuma ukuchaswa nokufuna ityala. Ngokuhlala benolwazi nokuthenjiswa, uyanceda ukuqinisekisa ukuba isithembiso sokhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho sihlala sinentsingiselo kumntu wonke.