Table of Contents

Ukuqonda ulwalamano oluntsonkothileyo phakathi kweenkqubo zomthetho nenkululeko yabemi kubaluleke kakhulu ekuqondeni indlela iintlalo ezikhusela ngayo amalungelo abantu kunye nenkululeko. Inkqubo yomthetho yinkqubo elungeleleneyo yezithethe zomthetho, imibutho, kunye neenkqubo ezisetyenziswa ngayo ezo zithethe, ngokufuthi kulawulo oluthile okanye uluntu. Iinkululeko zoluntu ngamalungelo asisiseko nenkululeko oorhulumente abathembisa ukungawathinteli, enoba ngomthetho, umthetho, okanye utoliko, ngaphandle kwenkqubo efanelekileyo yomthetho. Le ngcamango idityaniswe ngokunzulu, njengenkqubo kunye nendalo yenkqubo yelizwe engokomthetho iphembelela ngqo indlela inkululeko yabemi ebhaqwa ngayo, etolikwayo, etolikwayo, negunyaziweyo.

Ukukhusela inkululeko yabemi kuyahluka-hluka ngokuphawulekayo kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo zomthetho nakulawulo. Ngoxa amanye amazwe eye andisa iinkqubo zomgaqo-siseko eziwabala ngokucacileyo amalungelo omntu ngamnye, amanye axhomekeke kumdibaniso womthetho womthetho, imizekelo, kunye nezivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe. Olu khokelo lunentsingiselo luhlola iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zeenkqubo zomthetho ehlabathini lonke, ukuhlolisisa indlela yobume nokubaluleka kwenkululeko yasekuhlaleni, kwaye luhlalutya iindlela ezisetyenziswayo ekukhuseleni ezi nkululeko zisisiseko kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo ezingokomthetho.

Ukuqonda Inkqubo Engokwasemthethweni: Imbono Esemhlabeni Wonke

Iinkqubo zomthetho zisisiseko apho imibutho yomthetho ilungelelanisa khona imithetho yayo, isombulula iimbambano, igcina ucwangco. Iinkqubo zomthetho zeli xesha zisekelwe jikelele kwenye yeenkcubeko ezine eziphambili zomthetho: umthetho wasekuhlaleni, umthetho oqhelekileyo, umthetho wesithethe, umthetho wonqulo okanye imidibaniso yezi. Noko ke, ulwazi lwangoku luyaqonda ukuba uhlolisiso lwama 2000 lweenkqubo ezingokwasemthethweni zehlabathi ezifunyenwe kuma-92 axubeneyo, ama-91 eenkqubo emigaqo yomthetho yamakhaya, namankqubo aqhelekileyo omthetho. Oku kubonisa ukuba iinkqubo ezidityanisiweyo okanye ezixubeneyo ziqheleke ngakumbi njengoko amazwe elungelelanisa iinkqubo zawo ezingomthetho ukuze ahlangabezane neemfuno ezikhethekileyo zembali, ezenkcubeko, kunye neemfuno zezobupolitika.

Ukwahlula-hlulwa kwenkqubo yomthetho kusebenza iinjongo ezibalulekileyo ezingaphaya komdla wemfundo. Ukuqonda inkqubo yezomthetho yelizwe kubalulekile kushishino lwehlabathi lonke, ukuguqulelwa komthetho, uthelekiso lomthetho, kunye namalungelo abantu. Ukwahlula-hlulwa kwenkqubo yomthetho kubaluleke kakhulu ekuguqulelweni okusemthethweni kuba kulawula ubunzima bomsebenzi womguquleli: ezinxulumene ngokusondele ngakumbi nemimiselo emibini yomthetho, okukhona inkqubo yokuguqulela ilula.

Iinkqubo zoMthetho oqhelekileyo

Inkqubo yomthetho oqhelekileyo iveliswa yimithetho yejaji, njengoko umthetho uvela kumthetho ongomnye, kunokuba umisele. Imfundiso yokujongwa kwamehlo, ekwasaziwa njengomthetho wetyala okanye imizekelo yeenkundla, ingumahluko omkhulu kwiinkqubo zomthetho wasekuhlaleni ezigunyazisiweyo. Kumagunya aqhelekileyo, abagwebi banendima ephambili ekuphuhliseni umthetho ngezigqibo zabo kwiimeko nganye, ezisebenza njengomzekelo onyanzelisayo kumatyala afanayo angomthetho.

Umthetho oqhelekileyo usetyenziswa eKhanada (ekunqamlezeni iQuebec), eOstreliya, eNew Zealand, inkoliso yoManyano eUnited Kingdom (eNgilani, eWales, naseMntla Ireland), eMzantsi Afrika, eIndiya, eIndiya (engangeni eGoa nase Puducherry), ePakistan, eHong Kong, eUnited States (kwiphondo nakumgangatho welizwe elingaphandle kweLouisiana nePuerto Rico), eBangladesh, kunye nezinye iindawo ezininzi. Isithethe somthetho esiqhelekileyo saqala eNgilani kwaye sasasazeka kulo lonke uBukhosi baseBritani, oko kusenza ibe nye yezona zithethe zomthetho ezisasazeyo emhlabeni wonke.

Iinkundla zomthetho eziqhelekileyo ziyakwazi ukuqulunqa ityala; oko kukuthi, kukho umvuzo owelela wonke umqathango enkundleni. Kwindlela yokulawula ityala, kwicala ngalinye ligqiba imbambano kwaye libuza ukuba inkundla ifuna ukucombulula, iqhube uphando, ilungiselele kwaye inike ubungqina bayo. Oku kufikelela kowayo kuyaphikisana kakhulu neendlela zomncinaniso ezisetyenziswa kwiinkqubo zomthetho wamakhaya, apho abagwebi bathatha indima ekhutheleyo ekuphanda ngezibakala.

Elinye lamaxwebhu asisiseko afuna ukubumba umthetho oqhelekileyo yiMagna Carta yaseNgilani, eyabeka imida kumandla ookumkani bamaNgesi. Olu xwebhu lwembali, lwavumelanayo ngo1215, lwamisela umgaqo wokuba kwanookumkani babephantsi komthetho kwaye baseka isiseko sokhuseleko lwenkululeko yasekuhlaleni oluza kuvela kamva kumthetho omnye.

Inkqubo yoMthetho waBalelwane

Inkqubo yomthetho yamakhaya yaqala kwisithethe samaRoma. UMthetho wamakhaya nolona hlobo lwaziwayo lwenkqubo yomthetho ehlabathini, olusetyenziswa ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo kumazwe amalunga ne - 150. Oku kwenza ukuba umthetho ube yeyona nkqubo yomthetho ixhaphakileyo kulo lonke elaseYurophu, eMzantsi Merika, kwimimandla yeAsia neAfrika.

Amazwe anemigaqo-mthetho yamakhaya anemithetho ebanzi, ehlaziywe rhoqo echaza yonke imicimbi enokuziswa phambi kwenkundla, inkqubo esebenzayo, kunye nesohlwayo esifanelekileyo kwityala ngalinye. Ngokungafaniyo neenkqubo zomthetho eziqhelekileyo apho isalathisi somthetho sidlala indima ephambili, umthetho ungowona mthombo wesibini kula mazwe. Ukugxininiswa kugxininiso kumiselwe yimimiselo emiselwe liququzelelweyo yizindlu zowiso-mthetho kunokuba kwenziwe umthetho owenziwe ngabagwebi.

Kwinkqubo yomthetho wamakhaya, ijaji ithatha indima ephambili kuphando. Le ndlela yokuncina amatyala ithetha ukuba abagwebi abangengobathathi-nxaxheba phakathi kwamaqela aphikisanayo kodwa banenxaxheba ngokukhutheleyo ekuqokeleleni ubungqina nasekumiseleni izibakala. Imizekelo yamazwe omthetho wamakhaya iquka iFransi, iJamani, neBrazil. Ngaphezu koko, iBelgium, i-Mauritius, i-Itali, i-Algeria, iTunisia, i-Morocco, i-Sub-Saharan Afrika, iSpeyin kunye ne-Latin America zonke zisebenzisa uhlobo oluthile lomthetho wamakhaya.

Iinkqubo Zomthetho Wonqulo

Kwinkqubo yomthetho wonqulo, umthetho uxhomekeke kwiincwadi zonqulo njengesiseko sawo esiyintloko, kwaye iinkundla zitolika izibakala nemimiselo ekhoyo ngoku ngokuqwalasela ezo mibhalo zonqulo. Zonke iinkonzo zehlabathi eziphambili---judaism, ubuKristu, ubuSilamsi, ubuBhuda kunye nobuHindu/ubuHindu. Noko ke, umlinganiselo umthetho wonqulo olawula imicimbi yoluntu neyolwaphulo-mthetho wahluka kakhulu ngaphaya kolawulo.

Inkqubo yamaSilamsi engomthetho, equka isharia (umthetho we-Istracic) ne-fiqh (I-Istraminic jurispradence), yeyona nkqubo yomthetho yonqulo esetyenziswa kakhulu, kunye nenye yeenkqubo ezintathu eziqhelekileyo zomthetho ehlabathini ecaleni komthetho oqhelekileyo nomthetho wasekuhlaleni. Isekelwe kuwo omabini umthetho wobuthixo, osuka kwi-harith yeQuar ne-Sunnah, kunye nomthetho we-esle (iii-jurist), osebenzisa iindlela ze-ijma (inconus), i-qiyas (uthe), i-ijtihad (upher), kunye noqheliselo (ulu oluqhelekileyo) ukuze ufumane amafutha (ii-oglegal).

Inkoliso yamazwe anenkqubo yonqulo esetyenziswayo ukuze afakelele inkqubo yesizwe yalo. Kuphela yiSaudi Arabia (Illamic) kunye neVatican (yamaKristu) ecocekileyo enenkqubo yonqulo kuphela kwiintlanga zawo. Ngokomzekelo, iinkundla zonqulo kwaSirayeli ziquka iinkundla zamaYuda, iinkundla zamaSilamsi, iinkundla zonqulo, iinkundla zonqulo ze-Druzez, neenkundla zonqulo zeqela leshumi ezigqalwa njengomKristu. KwaSirayeli, ezi nkomfa zilinganiselwe kwimibandela ethile yomthetho weentsapho.

Iinkqubo zemithetho ezingokwesiko

Inkqubo yomthetho wesithethe yinkqubo esekelwe kwizithethe ezimileyo ixesha elide kuluntu oluthile. Izithethe ziye zazika kakhulu kwibutho labantu kangangokuba iinkundla ziwagqala njengemithetho enyanzelekileyo. Iinkqubo zomthetho zomthetho wesithethe zisekelwe kwimilinganiselo yokuziphatha (okanye amasiko) eye yamkeleka njengeemfuno zomthetho okanye imithetho yehambo kwilizwe elithile. Imithetho yemigaqo yemigaqo yezomthetho yesithethe idla ngokungabhalwa kwaye isoloko ikhutshwa ngabadala, idluliselwe kwizizukulwana.

Inkqubo yezomthetho ezingokwesiko iya isiba yinto engenakuxhaphaka kakhulu. Inkqubo yesithethe iya isetyenziswa ngukumkani, ookumkanikazi, iinkokeli zesizwe okanye ulawulo lomthetho olukhethekileyo. Noko ke, kunqabile ukuba imithetho yesithethe itolikwe ize inyanzelwe ngurhulumente. Endaweni yoko, khethani iinkokeli zeli qela ngokuqhelekileyo ziphumeze imithetho yesithethe.

Namhlanje, umthetho wesithethe awufane ubekho ngokuzikhetha. Ngokufuthi, uqheliselo lomthetho oluqhelekileyo lungafunyanwa kumagunya ahlukeneyo enkqubo yomthetho, apho aye adityaniswa nomthetho wasekuhlaleni okanye woluntu. Oku kudibana kuvumela abantu bomthonyama kunye nabomthonyama ukuba bagcine uqheliselo lwabo olusemthethweni ngoxa besebenza kwimimiselo yesizwe ebanzi.

Iinkqubo zomthetho Ezixutyiweyo Nezeengxubevange

Iinkqubo zomthetho ezidityanisiweyo zidityaniswe neenkqubo ezimbini okanye ezininzi zomthetho kwilizwe. Kukwakho ukudibana okuphawulekayo phakathi kwezi ntlobo zine, njengoko imimandla emininzi isebenzisa "umthetho osetyenziswayo" iinkqubo ezibonakalisa iinkalo zeenkqubo ezimbini okanye ezingaphezulu zomthetho. Ukwanda kweenkqubo ezixubeneyo kubonisa inkqubela-phambili entsonkothileyo yembali, yethanga, neyenkcubeko eye yayila inkqubela engokomthetho kumazwe amaninzi.

Njengelitha leBritane, i-Indiya inenkqubo yomthetho eqhelekileyo, ewamkelayo amandla eNkundla Ephakamileyo kunye neeNkundla Eziphezulu okwenza izigqibo ezibophelelekileyo njengendlela yokumisela. Noko ke, inkoliso yemithetho yayo idityanisiwe kwinkqubo yemithetho kaNapoleon. Ngaphezu koko, i-Indiya inemithetho eyahlukeneyo esebenzayo kumaSilamsi, kumaKristu, kumaHindu. Ngenxa yoko, iIndiya inenkqubo ye-projekthi eyenziwe ngomthetho omnye, umthetho wamakhaya, nangenkqubo yonqulo.

Umzekelo, urhulumente wase-US eLouisiana unenkqubo exubileyo. Louisiana usebenzisa umthetho oqhelekileyo, kodwa ikwasebenzisa inkqubo yomthetho karhulumente kwimithetho yakhe emininzi kunye nenkqubo ngenxa yemvelaphi yayo njengentsimi yamaFrentshi. Ngokufanayo, iQuebec, esebenzisa umthetho wamakhaya kumgangatho wamazwe asezantsi, kodwa iphantsi kwenkqubo yomthetho eqhelekileyo womthetho karhulumente.

Indalo Nomlinganiselo Wenkululeko Yamakhaya

Nangona inkululeko yabemi yahlukile phakathi kwamazwe, idla ngokuquka inkululeko yesazela, inkululeko yamaphephandaba, inkululeko yonqulo, inkululeko yokuthetha, inkululeko yokuhlanganisana, inkululeko yobuqu, inkululeko yokuthetha, ilungelo lokuzimela, ilungelo lokulingana phambi komthetho, ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni, nelungelo lokuphila. Ezinye iinkululeko zoluntu ziquka ilungelo lempahla, ilungelo lokuzikhusela, ilungelo lokuthembeka emzimbeni, kunye nelungelo lokuthembeka.

Ukukhululeka kwabemi kukukhusela kwizenzo zikarhulumente. Oku kwahlula amalungelo abantu, abhekisela kwizenzo ezifanelekileyo zikarhulumente kufuneka zithathe inyathelo lokwenza iimeko ezilinganayo kubo bonke abantu baseMerika. Ukuqonda lo mahluko kubalulekile ekuqondeni indlela eyahlukileyo ngayo imigaqo yokhuseleko esemthethweni kwibutho labantu elilawulwa ngedemokhrasi.

Ukwahlula Ukukhululeka Kwabemi Basekuhlaleni Kumalungelo Asekuhlaleni

Inkululeko yabemi ijongwa njengezinto ezingakhiyo (okanye imiyalelo engemihle) kurhulumente ukuba angenzi izinto ezithile. Inkxalabo ngenkululeko yabemi esisiseko nenkululeko eqinisekiswe ngokucacileyo yiBhili yamaLungelo kunye nomGaqo-siseko wase-United States okanye itolikwe yaza yakhutshwa yakhuselwa okanye yakhuselwa ziindlu zowiso-mthetho okanye iinkundla. Zinikela ukhuseleko kwisenzo solawulo okanye sikarhulumente.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, amalungelo asekuhlaleni axhalatyelwe kakhulu kukunikwa ilungelo elifanelekileyo labantu abamele baphathwe ngokulinganayo nangokufanelekileyo phakathi kwebutho labantu. Bathetha ngolwahlulo, ucalucalulo, nokususwa kwemiqobo enokuthintela abantu ukuba babe nenxaxheba ngokupheleleyo kwibutho labantu. Igama elinxulumene nalo, amalungelo asekuhlaleni, libhekisela ekuphatheni ngokufanayo phantsi komthetho nakukukhululeka ekucalucalucalulweni. Ukuba urhulumente uphazamisa inkululeko yabantu abathile kuphela, oku kuba kukuphulwa kwamalungelo abo asekuhlaleni.

Ngokuqhelekileyo, inkululeko yasekuhlaleni namalungelo abantu afanayo: Isithembiso esingathandekiyo sokuba urhulumente akasayi kuphazamisana nenkululeko yokuthetha sithetha isithembiso esiqinisekileyo sokuba uya kubakhusela abantu abavakalisa iimbono zabo, kwanaxa bejongene neengcamango ezinkulu ezifuna ukubaphelisa. Oku kunxibelelana kubonisa ukuba nangona iingcamango zahlukile, basebenza kunye ukukhusela inkululeko yabantu ngabanye.

Inkululeko Yaburhulumente

Inkululeko Yokuthetha Nentetho

Enye yezona nkululeko zixatyisiweyo zasekuhlaleni yinkululeko yokuthetha, enika abantu ilungelo lokuvakalisa iingcamango, iimbono neengcamango zabo ngaphandle koloyiko lokuchasana nemigaqo karhulumente okanye intshutshiso. Enoba ithetha ngokuchasene nemigaqo-nkqubo karhulumente, ikhuthaza iinguqulelo zentlalo, okanye isuka nje ibandakanyeke kwincoko evulekileyo, inkululeko yokuthetha inika abantu amandla okuvakalisa iimbono zabo ize inikele kwintetho yesidlangalala.

Inkululeko yokuthetha ayiphelelanga nakuliphi na igunya kwaye imele ilungelelaniswe nezinye izilangazelelo ezibalulekileyo ezifana nokhuseleko lwesizwe, ukhuseleko loluntu, namalungelo abanye. Iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zomthetho zitsala le mida ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo, zibonisa imilinganiselo eyahlukeneyo yezithethe nezithethe zezobupolitika.

Inkululeko Yonqulo

Enye inkululeko yoluntu egxekayo yinkululeko yonqulo, eqinisekisa ukuba abantu banelungelo lokuqhelisela unqulo okanye iinkolelo zabo ngaphandle kokuphazanyiswa ngurhulumente. Le nkululeko iquka ilungelo lokubambelela kwiinkolelo zonqulo nelungelo lokubonakalisa ezo nkolelo ngonqulo, ngoqheliselo, ngokufundisa nangesikhumbuzo.

Kulawulo - melo lwezonqulo, amalungiselelo omgaqo - siseko aqinisekisa inkululeko yonqulo nenkululeko kunqulo, athintela urhulumente ukuba aseke naluphi na unqulo olusemthethweni. Kumazwe anemigaqo yonqulo, inkululeko yonqulo isenokuba ilinganiselwe ngakumbi, ingakumbi kwiinkonzo ezincinane.

Ndinelungelo Lokuzifihla

Ilungelo lokuzimela, elimiselwe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo esekelwe kwiNkundla yesi-5, eyesi-9, neye-14, lisemgangathweni wemiba emininzi yale mihla. Ilungelo lokuqokelela ii-arhente ezininzi ezinxulumene nogcino-lwazi oluphathelele imfihlo, ingakumbi xa le nkcazelo inikezelwe ekunyanzelweni komthetho. Amalungelo obuqu abaluleke ngakumbi kwixesha lamanani, njengoko ubugcisa bunceda ukuqwalasela okungenakuthelekiswa nanto kunye nokuqokelelwa kolwazi.

Inkqubo Efanelekileyo Namalungelo Okuchotshelwa Kwetyala

IsiHlanziso sesithandathu sikhusela ilungelo lokuchotshelwa kwetyala ngokukhawuleza nakuwonke wonke lingumgwebi ongakhethi buso kumatyala olwaphulo-mthetho. Siqinisekisa ilungelo lomntu omangalelweyo lokuva izityholo zabo. Ukhuseleko olufanelekileyo luqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akanakuhlutha abantu ubomi, inkululeko, okanye impahla ngaphandle kokulandela iinkqubo ezimiselwe ngokusesikweni nokunika isaziso kunye nethuba lokuphula umthetho.

Ezi ndlela zokhuseleko zomthetho zisisiseko kumthetho kwaye zikho ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo kwiinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zomthetho. Ngoxa iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo zomthetho zingafani, inkoliso yeenkqubo zale mihla iyakuqonda ukubaluleka kweenkqubo zobulungisa kwimicimbi yolwaphulo-mthetho nakumaziko asekuhlaleni.

Ukuphuhliswa Kwembali Yokukhululeka Kwamakhaya

Ingcamango esesikweni yenkululeko yabemi idla ngokunikwa umhla kaMagna Carta, umgaqo-siseko womthetho wamaNgesi owavumelanayo ngowe-1215 owathi ngokulandelayo wasekelwa kumaxwebhu akhoyo, abizwa ngokuba yiSicatshulwa seLiber. Olu xwebhu lwembali lwamisela umgaqo wokuba igunya likarhulumente limele lilinganiselwe kwaye abantu banelungelo elithile abamele balihlonele amagunya.

Kwakhona abathandi bobupolitiki bafunda kwizithandi zoluNqano lweNgqibo ngenkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe neyeshumi elinesibhozo, kuquka iMontesquieu, uJohn Locke, uWilliam Blackstone noJean Jacques Rousseau. Ezi zithandi-bulumko zathetha ngamalungelo asisiseko, kuquka "ilungelo lobomi, inkululeko, kunye nempahla" bagxininisa ukubaluleka kokumisela amandla oorhulumente ngoko bangaphuli ezi nkululeko zisisiseko.

ISindululo sowe-1989 saMalungelo oMntu nowabami sadwelisa inkululeko emininzi yabemi kwaye singumgaqo-siseko. Olu xwebhu lweenguqu luphembelela inkqubela-phambili yomGaqo-siseko kulo lonke elaseYurophu nangaphaya, ukuseka imigaqo yenkululeko yomntu ngamnye, ukulingana, kunye nolawulo oluqhelekileyo oluqhubeka lubumba umthetho wamalungelo abantu wale mihla.

Isiqinisekiso Samalungelo EMerika

IBhili yamaLungelo yinkqubo yokuqala elishumi yokulungisa intelekelelo kuMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., eyagunyaziswa ngo-1791, elungiselelwe ukumisela igunya likarhulumente nokukhusela inkululeko yabantu ngabanye. UJames Madison, osoloko ebizwa ngokuba nguYise woMgaqo-siseko, wabhalisa iBhili yamaLungelo kwaye wazisa izindululo kwiBhunga zamalungelo abantu ngo1789 ukuthetha imicimbi karhulumente karhulumente karhulumente karhulumente ngokuphazanyiswa. Ulungelelwano lwakhe olucosele lukho phakathi korhulumente kunye namalungelo obuqu luyaqhubeka lubumba isiseko sobuzwe baseMelika namhlanje. UMadison wakholelwa ukuba ngaphandle kwemigaqo ecacileyo yokukhusela, urhulumente osandul'ukusekwa urhulumente unokuba noxanduva njengolawulo olulwiwamahlasele lulwe ukuba aphule. Unikezelo lwakhe lubonise ukuqondwa okucacileyo kwemfuno yomthetho-mthetho nxamnye norhulumente, umgaqo osemthethweni ohlala umgaqo-mthetho namhlanje.

Uninzi lwezigqibo ezibalaseleyo zenkundla ezichaza inkululeko yabemi baseMerika zisekelwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo, izindululo zokuqala ezilishumi ezongezwa kumGaqo-siseko ngowe-1791. Iinkululeko zabemi ezikhuselwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo zisenokuhlulwa zibe ziindawo ezimbini ezibanzi: inkululeko namalungelo aqinisekiswe kuMmiselo woQoqo-siseko (unqulo, ukuthetha, undaba, indibano, kunye nesicelo) kunye namalungelo onxulumene nolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nenkqubo efanelekileyo.

Ukuhlaziywa Kwezigwebo Neengxubevange Zeshumi Elinane

Ukudlula koMphetho-Mphetho weshumi elinesine ngokubhekele phaya kokukhusela inkululeko yabemi ngokuzisa u-Claus okanye u-Immunity Claus, i-Ad Procession Claus, kunye ne-Ukhuthazo olu-Cemente Claus. Oku kupheliswa, kwavunywa ngowe - 1868 emva kweMfazwe Yamakhaya, ngokusisiseko kwaguqula ulwalamano phakathi korhulumente, oorhulumente, oorhulumente kunye namalungelo omntu ngamnye.

KwiBarton v. Baltimore (1833), iNkundla Ephakamileyo yawisa umthetho wokuba iBhili yamaLungelo ithintelwe kuphela ngurhulumente wesizwe, hayi amazwana nezixeko. INkundla yayama kunyaka we- 1925 ukuba iNkundla ixhomekeke kuMphetho-Mpanzi we-14 ukuze ifumanise ukuba urhulumente umele ahlonele amalungelo oMbetho weSindululo (Gitrow v. New York). EGtlow, iNkuvakalisa ukuba inkululeko yokuthetha kunye nokucinezela "amalungelo obuqu nenkululeko ekhuselwe yinkqubo efanelekileyo ye-14 yokuHlunyuselwa kweSinyuselo seSinyuso samagunya."

INkundla ePhakamileyo iye yadlala indima ebalulekileyo ekutolikeni inkululeko yabemi, isebenzisa imfundiso yokubandakanya ngokukhetha ukusebenzisa iinxalenye zeBhili yamaLungelo kumazwe, ingakumbi ukususela kuma-1920. Amatyala okuphawula amazwe, anjengeGtlow v. New York kunye neMcDonald of Chicago, abonisa ukwanda ngokuthe ngcembe kwenkululeko yabemi.

Ukhuseleko lomGaqo-siseko ngaphesheya kweenkqubo zomthetho ezahlukeneyo

Indlela inkululeko yabemi ekhuselwe ngayo yahluka kakhulu kwiinkqubo zomthetho ezahlukeneyo nakwiinkqubo zomGaqo-siseko. Ngoxa amanye amazwe enamaphepha apheleleyo achaza amalungelo adweliswe ngokucacileyo kwimimiselo yawo, amanye axhomekeke kumxube wemigaqo yomgaqo-siseko, ukhuseleko lwemithetho, kunye nokutolikwa kwemithetho.

Ukukhululwa Kwabemi Kumazwe Aqhelekileyo Omthetho

Kumagunya aqhelekileyo omthetho, ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko lwenkululeko yabemi ludla ngokuvela ngokudibanisa amalungiselelo abhaliweyo omgaqo-siseko kunye nokucaciswa kwezomthetho. UmGaqo-siseko waseUnited States, ingakumbi iBhili- Lokulwela amalungelo, ukhusela inkululeko yabemi. Ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho eqhelekileyo kunye nemfundiso yesithethe ithetha ukuba ukhuseleko lwenkululeko yabemi luvela ngamatyala athile amisela imigaqo engqongqo kwiimbambano zexesha elizayo.

Ukususela ngowe-1947, iJapan, ilizwe elinolawulo olusemthethweni nolaziwa ngokuba libutho labantu "elinobuzwe elithe chu," linomgaqo-siseko obonakala unamandla wamalungelo alo ngaphakathi (iSikhundla III. Amalungelo kunye neeNtlalo zabantu). ngeendlela ezininzi, lifana noMgaqo-siseko ofana noMgaqo-siseko wamalungelo abantu owenziwe ngo-1949, kwaye ngenxa yoko uvela kubomi ngexesha lomsebenzi we-Japan. Lo mgaqo-siseko usenokuba uziva ufana nomthetho wamanye amazwe owenziwe ngabantu abaphezulu, kodwa hayi kubantu abaqhelekileyo "owayengenalukholo kwinkokeli zabo ezigxekweni zabo ezigxekiweyo nabaxhasi abanentsingiselo." Kwizikhuthazo ezithelekele ukukhusela inkululeko nelungelo lomntu ngamnye, ezigqunywe ngokubhekisele kumanqaku alishumi alishumi aphambili, kodwa hayi kubantu abaqhelekileyo "abangenayo intluvo olunentsingiselo."

Ukukhululwa Kwabantu Kumazwe Angomthetho Wamakhaya

Amazwe omthetho wamakhaya akhusela inkululeko yabemi ngokukhuselwa ngamaxwebhu acacileyo adwelisa ngokucacileyo amalungelo asisiseko. Umgaqo-siseko waseJamani, "Grundesetz" (ilitha. "UMthetho"), uqala ngoludwe oluntsonkothileyo lwenkululeko yabemi kunye namagunya kwisethi. 1 "Isidima somntu asinakuchaphazeleka. Ukuhlonela nokukhusela kuya kuba ngumsebenzi wawo onke amagunya kawonke-wonke. Ukulandela "Umthetho we-Gasting", abantu banelungelo lokubhenela kwiNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yeNtshona Jamani ("Boundsengstemsricht") ukuba bavakalelwa kukuba amalungelo abo asekuhlaleni ayaphulwa.

Emva kweNguquko yeVelvet, umGaqo-siseko ogqithisileyo wathatha indawo eCzechoslovakia. Ngonyaka ka1991, iTshata yamaLungelo asisiseko kunye neSipheko esiBanzi yamkelwa, ifumana ukuma okusemthethweni okufanayo nomGaqo-siseko. I-Czech Republic iye yagcina iTshata iphelele emva kokudilizwa kweCzechoslovakia njengoMthetho No. 2/19933 Col.

Ukukhululeka kwabemi kumazwe aneenkqubo ezixutyiweyo

Isiseko samaLungelo - - siqumrhu esikwicandelo III lomgaqo-siseko – iqinisekisa inkululeko yokuba onke amaIndiya anokuphila ngoxolo njengabemi baseIndiya. Inkqubo yomthetho exubeneyo yaseIndiya, idibanisa umthetho oqhelekileyo, umthetho wamakhaya, kunye nemiqathango yonqulo, inika ukhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko lwamalungelo asisiseko ngoxa ithobela nemithetho yobuqu yonqulo olwahlukileyo.

UMgaqo-siseko weRiphabliki yaBantu baseTshayina (osebenza kuphela kwilizwekazi laseTshayina, hayi kwiHong Kong, eMacau, naseTaiwan) ingakumbi amalungelo ayo asisiseko kunye ne-Dusties of Cities, uthi ukhusela inkululeko yabemi abaninzi. Nangona umgaqo-siseko wowe-1988 uqinisekisa inkululeko yabemi, urhulumente waseTshayina udla ngokusebenzisa "ukuphendulwa kwamandla karhulumente" kunye "ukukhuselwa kweemfihlelo zikarhulumente" izigwebo kwinkqubo yabo yomthetho zokuvalela abo bagxeka iQeqesho lobuKomanisi baseTshayina (CPCP) kunye neinkokeli zikarhulumente. Oku kubonisa ukuba ukhuseleko olusemthethweni alusoloko luguqulela ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabemi ngokunempumelelo.

Ubuchule Bokukhusela Inkululeko Yabemi

Ukukhusela inkululeko yabemi ngokunempumelelo kufuna okungaphezulu kuneentelekelelo zomgaqo-siseko. Iinkqubo ezininzi zomthetho zisebenza kunye ukukhusela inkululeko esisiseko nxamnye nokuqhathwa ngurhulumente nokuqinisekisa ukuba amalungelo akhuselekile.

Amalungiselelo oMgaqo-siseko neeBhili zaMalungelo

Iziqinisekiso zomGaqo-siseko ezibhaliweyo zisisiseko sokhuseleko lwenkululeko yabemi kwinkoliso yedemokhrasi yale mihla. La malungiselelo amisela amalungelo asisiseko urhulumente amele awahlonele aze anikezele ngesiseko esisemthethweni sezenzo zikarhulumente ezicel ’ umngeni eziphazamisa inkululeko ekhuselweyo. Ukhuseleko lomGaqo-siseko lusoloko lunandipha umgangatho okhethekileyo, ufuna inkxaso ephezulu okanye iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo zokuphelisa, ezinceda ukuqinisekisa ukuzinza kwazo ngexesha elifanelekileyo.

Inkululeko yamakhaya eUnited States ikhuselwe ngokuyintloko kukupheliswa komgaqo-siseko, okumisela isiseko esiqinileyo somthetho-siseko samalungelo abantu. IBhili yamaLungelo, njengoko kukhankanywe ngaphambili, iquka iziphumo ezithi zikhusele ngokucacileyo inkululeko engundoqo yabemi. Umzekelo, uMphengululo Wokuqala ukhusela inkululeko yokuthetha, yonqulo, kunye neyokushicilela, ngoxa uMphengululo weSine ukhusela ukuphengululwa nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni. Oku kuphengululwa kusebenza njengovavanyo olubalulekileyo kumandla karhulumente, ukuqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko engundoqo yabemi ayiphulwanga.

Ingcebiso yezeenkonzo nezeejaji

Nangona iinkundla zikarhulumente zilelisebe likarhulumente elingaphantsi komthetho omninzi, iinkundla zikhulisa idemokhrasi ngokukhusela inkululeko nokulingana kulawulo olugqithisileyo. Ijaji elizimeleyo elikwaziyo ukuqwalasela izenzo zikarhulumente nokuwisa imithetho echasene nokhuseleko lomgaqo-siseko ibalulekile ukuze kukhuselwe inkululeko yasekuhlaleni.

Iinkundla Zomanyano — ingakumbi iNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States — zinendima enkulu ekugqibeni umlinganiselo wokukhuselwa kwamalungelo abantu. Amatyala eNkundla Ephakamileyo ngokufuthi ayawacacisa, andise, okanye amisele amalungelo abantu. Ngobuchule bokuhlola isigwebo, iinkundla ziwatolika amalungiselelo omgaqo - siseko, ziwasebenzise kwiimeko eziziinyaniso ezithile, yaye zivelisa iimfundiso ezikhokelayo kumatyala exesha elizayo.

Ukuphembelela okubanzi kwenkululeko yabemi baseMerika kumiselwe kwiBhili yamaLungelo, iinkundla zigqiba ngoko umGaqo-siseko ukuthethayo ngetyala eziligqibayo. Ukungavisisani ngenkululeko yabemi kusoloko kusenzeka ngenxa yokuba imibandela ebandakanyekileyo intsonkothileyo kwaye iyantsonkotha. Izazinzulu zezobupolitika ziye zafumanisa ukuba abantu baxhasa amalungelo enkcubeko enkcacisweni, kodwa inkxaso yabo iyayeka xa kufika ixesha lokusebenzisa loo malungelo. Iimeko ziba nzima ngakumbi xa inkululeko iphakathi kwenkululeko iphakathi kwenkululeko yokuchasana nomatshini abakhululekileyo okanye umgaqo okhululekileyo ochasene nolungelelwano noluntu oluthe ngqo nolulo lwasekuhlaleni.

Izivumelwano Neendibano Zezizwe Ngezizwe Zamalungelo Abantu

Umthetho wamalungelo abantu wamazwe ngamazwe unikela umaleko owengeziweyo wokukhusela inkululeko yabemi ngaphezu kwamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko wasekhaya. Iintlanganiso neendibano zimisela imilinganiselo yezizwe ngezizwe yokukhusela amalungelo abantu kwaye zidala iindlela zokuhlola ukuthotyelwa nokuchaswa. Amazwe asebenzisa ezi zixhobo azimisele ukuxhasa imilinganiselo ethile encinane yokhuseleko lwenkululeko yasekuhlaleni.

Izixhobo ezinkulu zamalungelo abantu zamazwe ngamazwe ziquka iSindululo soMhlaba saMalungelo abantu, uMvumelwano wezizwe ngezizwe waMazwe Ngamalungelo abantu nawopolitiko, iNdibano yaseYurophu yaMalungelo abantu, iNdibano yamaMerika yaMalungelo abantu, kunye neSicatshulwa soMgaqo-nkqubo waseAfrika wamalungelo abantu. La maqela amisela imilinganiselo eqhelekileyo ngoxa evumela umahluko othile osekelwe kwizithethe nezithethe zomthetho.

Kwakhona, emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, iZizwe ezimanyeneyo ezintsha zawenza amalungelo abantu aba yinxalenye ebalulekileyo yocwangciso lwazo, kunye neJapan neNtshona Jamani, phantsi kwemikhosi elawulayo, zamkela umgaqo-siseko okhusela inkululeko yasekuhlaleni namalungelo abantu. Ixesha lasemva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II laphawula ulwando olubalulekileyo lomthetho wamalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke nokugqalwa kokhuseleko lwenkululeko engundoqo ngumbandela wenkxalabo yezizwe ngezizwe, hayi nje yenkqubo yasekhaya.

Ukhuseleko loMthetho namalungelo okuphelisa iMithetho

Amalungelo oluntu, kwelinye icala, anyanzeliswa ngoluhlu lweendlela zomthetho, kuquka imithetho elwa nocalucalulo kunye nokuvuma imigaqo-nkqubo. Imithetho yokulwa nocalucalulo, enjengeSivumelwano samaLungelo sangaphakathi sowe-1964 kunye namaMerika anesiChula soMthetho (ADA), emisela ukhuseleko olubanzi olusemthethweni nxamnye nocalulo kwiinkalo ezahlukeneyo zobomi babantu.

Ukhuseleko lokwanelisa iziqinisekiso zomgaqo-siseko ngokunika imithetho nemigaqo enkcubeko kwiimeko ezithile. Imithetho iyakwazi ukumisela imithetho enika intsingiselo ecacileyo kwimigaqo ecacileyo yomgaqo-siseko, ukuseka iinkqubo zolawulo, nokuyila imibutho yolawulo ejongene nokukhusela inkululeko yabemi kwiimeko ezithile.

Isalathisi somsebenzi wePhondo

Imibutho engeyoyangorhulumente, amamanyano enkululeko yasekuhlaleni, amaqela amalungelo abantu, nemibutho yokuphatha izikhundla zoluntu yenza indima ebalulekileyo ekukhuseleni inkululeko esisiseko. Le mibutho ijonge izenzo zikarhulumente, inike imelo olusemthethweni kubantu abamalungelo abo aphulweyo, ababandakanyeke kwimfundo kawonke-wonke, nabameli bokhuseleko olunamandla.

Imibutho yamakhaya isebenza njengeenja, inikela ingqalelo ekuphulweni kwenkululeko yabemi nokubekwa ityala korhulumente.

Ucelomngeni Lokukhululwa Kwamakhaya Kwixesha Lanamhlanje

Ukukhululeka kwabantu kujongene neengxaki ezipheliswayo njengoko inkqubela-phambili yobugcisa, ukusongelwa kokhuseleko kuvela, yaye iimeko zentlalo zitshintsha. Ukuqonda ezi ngxaki zanamhlanje kubalulekile ekuveliseni iindlela ezisebenzayo zokukhusela inkululeko esisiseko kule nkulungwane yama-21.

Ukhuseleko Lwesizwe Nezobuphekula

UMthetho we-USA PTRIOT (owagunyaziswa yiKhonkxane ngo-2006 eneenguqu ezimbalwa), uMthetho woBuntlola baMazwe Angaphandle woMgaqo-nkqubo woKhuseleko ka-2008, kunye nezenzo ezenziwa yi-National Security Agency noGeorge W. Ulawulo lwamaBush lwaphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ngokukhuphisana kwemidlalo yokhuseleko lwesizwe nenkululeko yabemi. Ziziphi ezi zinto ziphambili kunye naziphi iingxaki zenkululeko yasekuhlaleni ezisengozini?

Oorhulumente ehlabathini lonke baye bandisa amandla okuhlola kunye namandla okuqinisekisa ukuba umthetho usebenza ngokusabela kwizisongelo zobugrogrisi. La manyathelo adla ngokubandakanya ungquzulwano phakathi kwezilangazelelo zokhuseleko kunye nenkululeko yabemi, ingakumbi ngokuphathelele amalungelo obuqu, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokukhululeka ekuvalweni ngokungekho mthethweni. Ukubeka ulungelelwano olufanelekileyo phakathi kokhuseleko nenkululeko kusoloko kusenye yezona ngxaki zenkululeko yoluntu ezilwayo kwidemokhrasi.

Ukhuseleko logcino-lwazi lwamanani

Iminyaka yezobugcisa iye yabangela ucelomngeni olungenakuthelekiswa nanto lwamalungelo abantu abazimeleyo. Iinkqubo zolawulo lukarhulumente, ukuqokelelwa kweenkqubo zogcino-lwazi, ubugcisa bokuphawula ubuso, kunye nobuchule bokuyila inkcubeko ziphakamisa imibuzo esisiseko malunga nomgangatho wokukhuselwa kwemfihlo kwihlabathi langoku. Iinkqubo zomthetho ezisungulelwe ukuhlolwa komzimba nokuxhuzula kufuneka zilungiswe ukuze kuqwalaselwe ukuhlolwa kolwazi lwezitekshini kunye nokuqokelelwa kogcino-data.

Amazwe amaninzi aye amisela imithetho yokukhusela ugcino-lwazi etsha yokucombulula le mingeni, ukumisela amalungelo okufikelela, okuchanekileyo nokucima ugcino-lwazi lobuqu, kunye neembopheleleko ezixhobisayo kwimibutho eqokelela kwaye ilungelelanise ulwazi lobuqu. Noko ke, inkqubela yenkqubela yezobugcisa iyaqhubeka idlula inkqubela yomthetho, idala iingxaki eziqhubekayo zokukhuselwa kwenkululeko yabemi.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha Kwisqu samanani

Ii-intanethi zivulele impikiswano ngenkululeko yokuthetha eqinisekiswe nguMphetho-nkqubo wokuqala. Ingaba iinkampani ezinkulu zezentlalo, njengamashishini oluntu, zifanele zikwazi ukukuhlola ukukhuselwa kwentetho okanye "oonogada" abasebenzisi abangalandeli imithetho ethile? Ingaba urhulumente ufanele akwazi ukulawula iimpazamo kwezi migangatho?

Ukuvela kwemigangatho yezentlalo-ntle kuye kwaguqula intetho yesidlangalala kwaza kwaphakamisa imibuzo emitsha ephathelele inkululeko. Iingxoxo ezibandakanya ukuthomalalisa ulungelelwano ngeendawo zabucala, ukusasazwa kwenkcazelo ephosakeleyo nokuchaphazeleka kwenkcazelo echaphazelekayo, ukuhlaselwa ngekhompyutha, nendima karhulumente ekulawuleni intetho ye-intanethi. Iinkqubo engokwahlukeneyo zomthetho ziphendula ngokwahlukileyo kule mibuzo, zibonakalisa ukulungelelana kolu khundla lwenkululeko kunye nezinye izithethe.

Amalungelo emipu nokhuseleko loluntu

Ukudubula kwabantu abaninzi eUnited States kudla ngokuphumela ekubeni kufuneke imithetho enamandla yokulawula imipu. ISibini SoMthetho wokuHlaziya siphakamisa amaxhala enoba imiqathango ethile iyalichasa kusini na ilungelo lokuphatha izixhobo. Ingxoxo engokwamalungelo emipu ibonisa iingxaki zokulungelelanisa inkululeko yabantu nenkxalabo yokhuseleko loluntu kwaye ibonisa indlela iimpikiswano zenkululeko zasekuhlaleni ezidla ngokubandakanya ngayo amalungelo nemilinganiselo ekhuphisanayo.

Indima Yeenkqubo Zomthetho Ekupheliseni Ukukhotyokiswa Kwabemi

Isakhiwo nemo yenkqubo yesizwe yomthetho iphembelela ngokuphawulekayo indlela inkululeko yabemi ekhuselwa ngayo nenyanzelwa ngayo. Izithethe ezahlukahlukeneyo ezisemthethweni zifumana ukhuseleko lwamalungelo ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo, zibonisa iziseko ezahlukileyo zentanda-bulumko, amalungiselelo enkcubeko, nemilinganiselo yenkcubeko.

Ukufikelela Komthetho Oqhelekileyo Kukhuseleko Lwamalungelo

Iinkqubo zomthetho eziqhelekileyo zikhusela inkululeko yabemi ngokudityaniswa kwamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko kunye nemizekelo egwebayo. Ukubekwa kwemithetho yomthetho oqhelekileyo kunye nemfundiso yokujongwa kwamehlo kuthetha ukuba ukukhuselwa kwamalungelo kuvela kwiimeko ezithile. Oku kuvumela ukuba kubekho ububhetyebhetye nokuqhekeka njengoko iinkundla zisebenzisa imigaqo yesiseko kwiimeko ezintsha, kodwa kwakhona kunokuphumela ekuguquguqukeni nasekungaqiniseki.

Ukugxininisa kwimizekelo kwiinkqubo zomthetho oqhelekileyo kuthetha ukuba amatyala abalulekileyo amisela imigaqo ebalulekileyo yenkululeko yasekuhlaleni anentsingiselo ehlala ihleli. Iinkundla ezilawula imithetho eqhelekileyo zisoloko zikhankanya kwaye zahlula izigqibo zangaphambili, ziseka umthetho wetyala onika intsingiselo ecacileyo kwisiqinisekiso somGaqo-siseko esingaqondakaliyo.

UMthetho waMasipala Ufikelela Kukhuseleko Lwamalungelo

Inkqubo yomthetho wamakhaya ixhomekeke kakhulu kwiincwadi ezibanzi zomGaqo-siseko nakwimithetho ebanzi ukukhusela inkululeko yabemi. Iinkundla zomGaqo-siseko kumazwe omthetho wasekuhlaleni zisoloko zinegunya elikhethekileyo kwimibuzo yomgaqo-siseko kwaye zisenokuhlola umthetho ongekho ngqiqweni, ngaphambi kokuba usetyenziswe kwiimeko ezithile. Le ndlela inokuba luncedo ngakumbi kwaye ixelwe kwangaphambili ngokuphathelele umgangatho wamalungelo akhuselweyo.

Ukugxininiswa kokuhlanganiswa kweenkqubo zomthetho wasekuhlaleni kuthetha ukuba amalungelo akhuselwa ngokucacileyo kumaxwebhu omgaqo-siseko kunye nomthetho osebenzayo. Ngoxa izigqibo zomthetho zichaza la malungiselelo, azinawo ubunzima obufanayo nobenkqubo yomthetho eqhelekileyo, kwaye kugxininiswa kakhulu kumalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko nawasemthethweni.

Impembelelo Yeenkqubo Ezixutyiweyo

Amazwe aneenkqubo zomthetho ezidityanisiweyo adla ngokusebenzisa izithethe ezininzi ekukhuseleni inkululeko yabemi. Oku kungadala amathuba kunye nocelomngeni. Kwelinye icala, iinkqubo ezidityanisiweyo zingadibanisa amandla endlela ezahlukeneyo, njengokuthamba komthetho oqhelekileyo kunye nokucaca komthetho wasekuhlaleni. Kwelinye icala, unxulumano phakathi kwezithethe ezahlukeneyo ezingokwasemthethweni lungadala ubunkimbini kunye neengxwabangxwaba.

Ukuphumelela kwenkululeko yabemi kwiinkqubo ezixubeneyo kuxhomekeke kwindlela ezidityaniswe ngayo izithethe ezingokwasemthethweni nokuba amalungiselelo equmrhu aluncedo ngayo ekucombululeni ungquzulwano phakathi kwemithombo eyahlukeneyo yomthetho.

Imbono Ethelekisayo Kwinkululeko Ekhethekileyo Yabemi

Ukuhlolisisa indlela eyahlukileyo imithetho elawula inkululeko yasekuhlaleni ekhusela ngayo inkululeko yasekuhlaleni kutyhila imigaqo eqhelekileyo kunye neenguqu eziphawulekayo kwindlela esetyenziswa ngayo. Ngoxa ulawulo-melo lwale mihla luqonda iindidi ezifanayo zamalungelo asisiseko, umlinganiselo nokusetyenziswa kwala malungelo kuyahluka kakhulu kwiimeko zolawulo.

Inkululeko Yonqulo Ngapha nangapha Kwamalungiselelo Ezomthetho

Inkululeko yonqulo yahluka kakhulu kwiinkqubo zezomthetho nezithethe. Ulawulo-melo luqinisekisa ukuba abantu banokukwazi ukunqula yaye bakhululeke kunqulo, luthintele urhulumente ukuba angaxhasi naluphi na unqulo. Amazwe aneenkonzo ezisemthethweni anokuzikhusela ngokusikelwe umda iinkonzo ezincinane, ngoxa ukulondoloza ukhuseleko oluqatha kunqulo oluninzi.

Kumazwe anemigaqo yonqulo, inkululeko yonqulo ixhomekeke kulwalamano phakathi komthetho wonqulo nowehlabathi. Amanye amagunya onqulo asebenzisa kuphela imibandela ethile enjengeyomthetho wentsapho, ngoxa egcina iinkqubo zomthetho zehlabathi kwezinye iinkalo.

Inkululeko Yokuthetha Nenkululeko Ecinezelayo

Ngoxa ulawulo-melo oluninzi luyigqala inkululeko yokuchaza njengelungelo elisisiseko, umlinganiselo wesi sikhuseli ungafani kakhulu. Amanye amagunya, ingakumbi lawo alandela isithethe saseMerika, anikela ukhuseleko olubanzi oluquka ukuhlazisa nokuphikisa. Amanye alinganisa intetho ekhululekileyo echasene nemilinganiselo ekhuphisanayo efana nesidima, udumo, kunye nocwangco lukawonke-wonke, emisela imiqathango engakumbi kwintetho yentiyo, ukunyeliswa, kunye nokukhuthazwa kwentetho.

Izixhobo zokukhusela inkululeko ziyahluka ngokufanayo ngaphaya kolawulo. Amanye amazwe anikela ukhuseleko olunamandla olungokomGaqo-siseko lobujengajinga kwaye ayawuthintela umgaqo othintelwayo ekupapasheni, ngoxa amanye evumela ulawulo olungakumbi lukarhulumente wamajelo eendaba yaye amisela imiqathango engqongqo kwimibandela efana nokhuseleko lwesizwe okanye imicimbi yezomthetho.

Amalungelo obumfihlo nokhuseleko logcino-lwazi

Ukhuseleko lwemfihlo luye lwaguquka ngokwahlukileyo kwiinkqubo zomthetho. Amanye amagunya agqala ukuzimela njengelungelo elisisiseko lomgaqo-siseko, ngoxa amanye ekhusela ukuzimela ngokuyintloko ngomthetho wemithetho. I-European Union iye yavelisa imimiselo ebanzi yokukhusela ugcino-lwazi emisela amalungelo neemfuno zolwazi lobuqu, ngoxa amanye amagunya esebenzisa iindlela ezilinganiselweyo.

Kwakhona umlinganiselo wokuzikhusela ngasese uyahluka ngokuphathelele ulawulo lukarhulumente, ezinye iinkqubo zomthetho zimisela imiqathango engqongqo kwimisebenzi yokuhlola yaye zifuna ukugunyaziswa kwesigwebo, ngoxa ezinye zinikela ingqiqo ephangaleleyo kumthetho nakumaqumrhu aphetheyo.

Ikamva Lokukhuselwa Kwabemi

Njengokuba ibutho liqhubeka liguquka lize lijongene nocelomngeni olutsha, ukukhuselwa kwenkululeko yabemi kufuneka kulungelelane neemeko ezitshintshayo ngoxa kugcinwa imigaqo esisiseko. Imeko ezininzi ziyakwazi ukuguqula ikamva lokhuseleko lwenkululeko yabemi kwiinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zomthetho.

Ukubuyiselwa kobugcisa nokhuseleko lwamalungelo

Ubugcisa obudibanisa ubuntlola obungasetyenziswanga, ukusetyenziswa kwe-biometric, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, namandla okuhlola akhoyo kuza kuqhubeka kuvavanya ubuchule benkululeko yasekuhlaleni. Iinkqubo zomthetho kufuneka zivelise iindlela ezintsha zokukhusela inkululeko esisiseko ngexesha lobugcisa ngelixa zivumela ukusetyenziswa kobugcisa okuyingenelo.

Oku kuza kufuna ukuhlaziya iinkcazelo zomgaqo-siseko, ukumisela umthetho omtsha, nokuphuhlisa imilinganiselo yezizwe ngezizwe ethetha ngeengxaki ezizinziswe bubugcisa obutsha. IiNkundla kuza kufuneka zisebenzise imigaqo yenkululeko yasekuhlaleni kwiimeko ezintsha, ngeli lixa izindlu zowiso-mthetho kufuneka zimisele imithetho yezandla ekhusela amalungelo ngaphandle kokuphembelela.

Ukudityaniswa Kwehlabathi Nokuvisisana Kwamalungelo

Ukwanda konxibelelwano lwehlabathi lonke kubangela uxinzelelo lokulungelelaniswa kwemilinganiselo yenkululeko yabemi kwiinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zomthetho. Umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe wamalungelo abantu, iinkqubo zamalungelo abantu, kunye neenkqubo zokukhuthaza ukusetyenziswa kwamalungelo abantu kwimimandla yonke zikhuthaza imilinganiselo efanayo ngoxa zihlonela izithethe nezithethe ezahlukeneyo ezisemthethweni.

Le ntsingiselo yokulungelelaniswa kufuneka ilungelelaniswe ngokuchasene nokuhlonelwa kwezithethe neemfuno ezahlukeneyo zenkcubeko. Nangona imigaqo ethile engundoqo yenkululeko yasekuhlaleni isenokuba zwenibanzi, ukusebenza kwayo nokuzalisekisa kwayo okukhethekileyo kungahluka ngokusemthethweni kwiintlanga ezahlukeneyo kunye neenkqubo zomthetho.

Ukulungelelanisa Unqabiseko Nenkululeko

Njengoko kuvela izisongelo zokhuseleko nobugcisa obutsha, iinkqubo zomthetho zimele zivelise iinkqubo ezikhusela ukhuseleko nenkululeko esisiseko.

Oku kufuna ulawulo oluqinileyo, iinkqubo ezicace gca, nokuhlola imigaqo yokhuseleko enentsingiselo echaphazela inkululeko yabemi. Kukwafuna ukuba abantu baqhubeke bethetha ngokulungelelana okufanelekileyo phakathi kokhuseleko nenkululeko yedemokhrasi kuluntu.

Isiphelo

Ulwalamano phakathi kweenkqubo zomthetho nenkululeko yasekuhlaleni lunzima kwaye luneembono ezininzi. Izithethe ezahlukahlukeneyo ezisemthethweni zijonga amalungelo ngendlela eyahlukileyo, zibonakalisa iziseko zentanda-bulumko, amalungiselelo eenkqubo, nemilinganiselo yenkcubeko eyahlukeneyo. Ukuqonda oku kuyimfuneko kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqonda indlela inkululeko esisiseko ekhuselwa ngayo kwimimandla eyahlukeneyo.

Ngoxa iindlela ezithile zokwaphulwa komthetho zingafani, kuvela imigaqo ethile eqhelekileyo. Ukukhuselwa kwenkululeko yabemi ngokunempumelelo kufuna ukuvunywa komGaqo-siseko okanye okusemthethweni kwamalungelo asisiseko, amaziko azimeleyo anokuwamisa loo malungelo, amayeza afanelekileyo okwaphula umthetho, kunye nezithethe zezobupolitika ezixabisa inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Akukho nkqubo yomthetho inye enegunya lokukhusela amalungelo asebenzayo, kwaye iindlela ezahlukeneyo zinokufikelela usukelo olufanayo ngeendlela ezahlukeneyo.

Njengoko abantu bejamelene neengxaki ezintsha ngenxa yokutshintsha kwezobugcisa, ukusongelwa, nokuguqulwa kwentlalo, ukukhuselwa kwenkululeko yabemi kufuneka kuqhubeke kusenziwa ngokuzenzekela. Iinkqubo zomthetho kufuneka zivumelanise imigaqo yesithethe neemeko ezintsha ngoxa zigcina izibopho ezingundoqo kwinkululeko yomntu ngamnye nesidima sakhe. Oku kufuna incoko eqhubekayo, ukuphuhliswa kwemibutho, nokuphaphanyiswa kwenkululeko engundoqo.

Kubantu ngabanye, ukuqonda ulwalamano phakathi kweenkqubo zomthetho nenkululeko yasekuhlaleni kubalulekile ekuqapheleni nasekuqinisekiseni amalungelo abo. Kubenzi bomgaqo-siseko kunye neengcaphephe zomthetho, olu lwazi lubalulekile ekuyileni ukhuseleko olunempumelelo nasekucombululeni iingxwabangxwaba phakathi kwemigangatho ekhuphisanayo. Kwanakuluntu luphela, ukugcina ukhuseleko oluqinileyo lwenkululeko yabemi kungundoqo ekulondolozeni ulawulo lwedemokhrasi nolawulo lomntu ngamnye.

Ukukhusela inkululeko yabemi kusengumsebenzi oqhubekayo, ofuna ingqalelo engapheliyo kunye notshintsho. Ngokuqonda indlela iinkqubo ezahlukeneyo zomthetho ezilujonga ngayo olu celomngeni, singafunda kumava awahlukeneyo size sivelise iindlela ezisebenzayo zokukhusela inkululeko esisiseko kwihlabathi elisoloko lihamba ngobuchule. Enoba ngomthetho oqhelekileyo, ukwenziwa komthetho wasekuhlaleni, ukuqinisekiswa komgaqo-siseko, okanye izivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe, usukelo luhlala lunjalo: ukuqinisekisa ukuba abantu banandipha ukhuseleko olunentsingiselo kumalungelo abo asisiseko nenkululeko ngokuchasene nobuchule obuphambili borhulumente nokusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya.

Ukufunda ngokubhekele phaya kwiinkqubo zomthetho kunye nophuhliso lwazo, tyelela i Cornell Information Institute . Ukufunda okungakumbi ngokhuseleko lwenkululeko yabemi eUnited States, uphando lwezibonelelo PROFEUS History. . [Iiimbono zamazwe ngamazwe ngamalungelo abantu kunye nenkululeko yasekuhlaleni, kujongwa kulawulo lwezizwe ngezizwe lwe-United Nations Universal Declation of Human Rights [. Abo banomdla kumthetho wokwahlula umthetho bangafumana ulwazi olubalulekileyo oluphuma [ Umthetho weSikolo [FLT:]]. Ekugqibeleni, izibonelelo zangokuqhubekayo, kwiinkqubo zomthetho kunye nemibutho ye-RGeneral Union, kunye ne-Unionctic Union kunye ne-Unionc.