Ikamva LoMongami Karhulumente Liyadibana Ngokukhanyiselwa Zizigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo Yakutshanje

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni kwenkundla karhulumente ikhuselekile kumazwe azimeleyo kangangexesha elide kwinkundla yangasese ngaphandle kwemvume yawo. Isekelwe kwiSindululo seshumi elinesithoba kunye neenkulungwane zomthetho oqhelekileyo, lo mgaqo ulungelelanisa isidima nenkululeko yoorhulumente ngokuchasene nemfuneko yokuphendula komntu ngamnye. Noko ke, imigaqo yeNkundla yaNgokumiyo yeSigxina, iye yavavanya imida yokuzikhusela kolawulo lobuzwilakhe kwimimandla esusela kwinkululeko yonqulo nolawulo lwamagunya. Njengoko iNkundla iqhubeka ilungisa indlela yayo, imibuzo ngenjongo yayo, iziseko lomgaqo-siseko, nemiqathango yayo yexesha elizayo ihlala ingundoqo kwiNkugqibela yaseMerika.

Ukuzikhusela ngokwasemthethweni kwesizwe akuphelelanga; iBhunga lisenokuyidibanisa phantsi kweemeko ezithile, kwaye amaphondo angavuma ngokuzithandela ukuvumelana nayo. Kodwa izigqibo zeNkundla kwiminyaka engamashumi amathathu edluleyo ziye zaziqinisa izigqibo zokuhlaziywa nokucaciswa xa ukuthintelwa kusebenza kwiinkundla zesizwe nezorhulumente. Ukuqonda ezi ziganeko kufuna ukuba kuvavanywe iingcambu zembali, iinkundla eziphambili zale mihla, kunye neengxoxo eziphambili ezivelayo ezingokwasemthethweni eziya kuyibumba le mfundiso kwiminyaka ezayo.

Imvelaphi yokungaQondiswa koMongami weMbundla

Umgaqo wokuba umlawuli akanakumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe ubuyele kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi kwaye wamkelwa ngamathanga aseMerika. Emva kokuthatyathwa kwemiGaqo-siseko, isigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo [i-1793] iChjollm v. IGeorgia ivumela abemi babucala ukuba bangenise amaphondo kwinkundla yesizwe, baqhube umkhohlo-mkelo wePhondo weshumi elinesihlanu noMgaqo-siseko ngo1795. I Amendulo iya kunikela oku: “Ulawulo lwezigwebo lweUnited States aluyi kukhutshelwa nasiphi na isakhono kumthetho okanye i-equit, ukuqulusela okanye ukumangalelwa nxamnye nenye i-United States eMbutho woMbutho woMgaqo-onke, okanye i-oMgaqongqo-owa-owa-onke oMgaqo-zwelo-zweneyoMganga.

Ekuhambeni kwexesha, iNkundla yandisa ukufikelela koMphetho-mda ngaphaya kombhalo wayo wokoqobo. Hans v. Louisiana (1890), iNkundla yathi akukhuselekanga kwimpahla yabemi bayo, iqiqa ukuba uMphetho weshumi elinesixhenxe uqinisekisa ukuba umgaqo womgaqo-siseko owenzelwe ukukhusela ulawulo lukarhulumente. Lo khuselo lukwandiswa kwinkundla yesizwe ukwenzela iingozi, ukukhululeka, kwaneenkqubo ezithile zolawulo, ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente okanye iBhunga loMbutho livumela ukuba libunyanise amandla okulawula phantsi kweCandelo le-5 loMgaqo-nkqubo.

Ukhuseleko lwezolawulo lwelizwe alusiso isikhuselo sengubo. Inkundla iqaphele ukungamkeleki kweesuti eziziswa yi-United States, izenzo ezichasene namagosa karhulumente ukwenzela isiqabu esitsha phantsi Ex icandelo Young, kunye namatyala apho uthintelo lwezokhuselo lwesizwe lungakhuseleki. Ngaphezu koko, amazwe awakhuselekanga kwiisuti kwiinkundla zawo xa umgaqo-siseko okanye imimiselo inika unyango. Ezi nkcukacha zithe zadala ummandla ontsonkothile othe waqhubeka uhamba.

Iziganeko Zembali Nemfundiso Yendaleko Yeshumi Elinanye

Amatyala okuqala anjenge Georgia [1831]) abonisa ukudlala phakathi kolawulo lwesizwe nokhuselo lombuso. INkundla yathi iCherokee Nation yayingeyo “ilizwe elingaphandle” phantsi kweQumrhu III kwaye ngoko yayingenakumgweba ngqo Georgia kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. Ngoxa esi sigqibo singakuchazanga ngqo ukukhusela ulawulo, samkela ukuba zombini izizwe zinokuwamisela amalungelo olawulo alinganiselweyo phezu kwazo. Kamva, Inxalenye eYoung [[FLT] ngoko ke ngoko ayinakukwazi ukugweba ngqo kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo. (1910), iNkukhundla lenzelo ithe yancomela ngaphandle kobucala: i-offreantsstion i-odgnomes ardentiant, ukuba ithelk amalungelo azimele awenziswa yimeko ebalulekileyo.

Ixesha langoku lokhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu laqala ngemithetho yeSikolo soburhulumente & isibhedlele v. Halderman (19984), eyayithi ikhowudi yePremisti yeshumi elinesibhozo yemida yoLawulo oluzimeleyo inqanda amagosa karhulumente ukuba athobele umthetho karhulumente. INkundla yagxininisa ukuba imigaqo karhulumente ifuna ukuhlonelwa ngolawulo lukarhulumente, kwanaxa ummiselo karhulumente unganikela ngesizathu sokukhululeka. Esi sigqibo saqinisa ingcamango yokuba ukukhusela ulawulo lwe-ografithi asiyo nje into engundoqo kodwa ukhuseleko olusezantsi lomthetho-siseko.

Izigqibo ZeNkundla Ephakamileyo Zakutshanje Ziphelisa Umanyano Lolawulo

Kumashumi amathathu eminyaka adluleyo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ikhuphe uthotho lwezigwebo zemiqondiso eziye zacacisa zaza zasikel' umda womgangatho wokuzikhusela kwesizwe. Ezi zigqibo zibonisa iNkundla eyahluleleneyo, nezigwebo ezingeyomfuneko ezisoloko zixhasa ukuthintelwa okubanzi nokusesikweni okugunyazisiweyo okukhuthaza ukuphendula okungakumbi. La matyala alandelayo abaluleke ngokukhethekileyo.

Seminole Friest of Florida v. Florida (1996)

Isigqibo esinesiphumo esikhulu seli tyala kwi-logracy sokhuseleko lomzimba si- Seminole Tribe yaseFlorida v. Florida, 517 U.S.1996). Kwisigqibo esingu 5-4 seNkundla yabambelela kwelokuba iNkundla ayinako ukumelana nokhuseleko lombuso phantsi kweGciso I, njengoMgaqo-siseko weCandelo. Ityala lavela kumthetho we-Indiya Gaming Religalication, owanika izizwe ilungelo lokuqhuba imicimbi elungileyo. Inkundla yabonisa ukuba ityala alikwazi ukulawulwa kwemithetho emide phantsi komthetho [Foct:2]. [i-Gamvonynynyny. [FLT] I-Union.[FT] [FL.9] [9], eyavumela ukusetyenziswa kwe-Cediuschreast projectives, ingu-Genethi yeGenest Redius, iReasticestivent (east Reast) yabonisa ukuba iR

Isigqibo sakhuthaza ukuphindwa kwemiqathango [[FLT: 1] ngokunempumelelo ukuphelisa amandla eBhunga aphantsi kwemithetho echaphazelekayo ekwahluleni kwemithetho yeBhunga ukubeka iishenxiso zomonakalo ngokwemiqathango emininzi karhulumente, kuquka ezo eziphathelene nokuwa kwamalungelo, ipropati yezentengiselwano. Isigqibo sakhuthaza ukuququzelelwa kwemiqathango ukuba amazwana anokugwetyelwa ukwaphula imithetho yesizwe. Ngokulandelayo amatyala anjenge- College Moniings Bank v. Florida Prefelicary Education Froughtion Board (1999]) kunye [FLT] Firlat:4] Fireast Reducation Bud Bud Bud Bud Bud Bud Budkns[5], ukuqwala ulutyo, kwaye akwane lwabiwo olusebenzayo lwe-PromediyoGenethiwervey .[Fodkt proce

Alden v. Maine (1999)

Ku i-Alden v. Maine, 527 U.S. 706 (1999), iNkundla yathetha nokuba ukhuseleko lwezoburhulumente luyasebenza kusini na enkundleni yenkundla. Amagosa aqhelekileyo, amatshatsheli, agweba urhulumente kwinkundla yawo yetyala, urhulumente, uquke urhulumente wetyala loburhulumente wetyala ngokubhekiselele kwityala lobuzwilakhe. Uninzi lwaqiqal ’ uluvo lokuba “ipostile ezingqondweni zomgaqo womgqeba wethu" ziquka ulawulo lwezongaqeshiyo phantsi koMthetho we-Model Activesty Act. Inkundla yale ibambe i-ethoriveltiesties ekwinkundla yesizwe, ubuncinane xa isuntrawuthi obukwingulo olukumgangatho ophantsi kwetyala lomthetho womthetho womthetho olawulayo nangaphi nangaphi nangaphi nangagunyaziwe, ngaphandle kokuba i-R.

IJaji uSouter yaphikisa, iphikisa ngelithi iingcamango zoninzi zazinesiphene ngokwembali kwaye ukuba ukukhusela ulawulo lwezikhundla kwinkundla yeli lizwe kwakungahloselwenga ukukhusela iimeko kwiisuti ezisekelwe kumthetho karhulumente. Oku kungavumelani kwabalaselisa uxinezeleko phakathi kwemigaqo yeNkundla ye-operalist kunye nokunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo emithetho-siseko. Phezu kwako nje ukugxekwa, Alden ihlala iyisiseko semfundiso yokhuselo lwale mihla.

IKhomishini yeFederal Maritime v. uMzantsi Carolina iGunya lePonti (2002)

INkundla yokhuselo oluphezulu yandisa ikomkhulu lolawulo kwimicimbi ethile iFederal Maritime Commission v. uGunyazo lweQumrhu loMzantsi Carolina , 535 U.S.743 (2002). IKhomishini yeFederal Maritime yasungula igqugula ngokuchasene neSivumelwano esichasene neSouth Carolina Ports Authority emva kokuba inkampani yabucala ikhalaze ngocalucalulo kwimishoni. Inkundla yamatyala yabambelela kwimigaqo ye-Andeminth Dementi yesidima kunye ne-Hlaviation ithetha ukuba imigaqo yesidima yabaphathi borhulumente borhulumente iphumele phambi kwamasebe, kwana xa inyathelo lokuqhubeka lingekho lungelo loluntu. Isigqibo sathintelwa amatyali ekufuneni uncedo nxamnye nezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo, ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente livumene.

Fulton v. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia (2021)

Ngoxa ityala leNkqutyana yeFiladelphia neSixeko sobuKatolika [FULT], 593 U.S_ (2021), ngokuyintloko lisebenza ngenkululeko yonqulo phantsi koMphengululo Wokuqala, iziphumo zalo zokuzikhusela ngokusemthethweni zibalulekile. Ityala lavela kwisigqibo sikaPhiladelphia sokuyeka ukubhekisela kubantwana kwiiNkonzo zeNtlalo yamaKatolika (CSS) ngenxa yokuba iCS yala ingavumi ukuqinisekisa ukuba isibini esifanayo kunye nabazali abanolwazi olungonqulo. Isixeko asikhange siphakamise indlela yokuzikhusela epheleleyo ekungamelani iCSS ngokuchasene ne-CSSS. [ipheright Ceclausce.[3] ingce icandelo elingomthetho eliqhelekileyo lokuzinzisayo lokuzinzisa.[3]

Ukongeza, ishiya i-Flulton ivula amathuba okuba iinkundla zikarhulumente zivumele iisuti ezichasene namagosa karhulumente zivumele imiqathango esekelwe kwimithetho echasene nomgaqo-siseko, kwanaxa urhulumente ngokwawo ehlala engonakeleyo ekukhuselekeni. Ityala libonisa ukuba ukukhusela ulawulo lomntu akuyonto ithintelo kumalungelo omthetho-siseko; ibopha iintonga ezonzakalisayo kunye neesuti ezithile kwindawo apho urhulumente enomdla.

Ityala Eliyintloko Nezixabisi Zalo Ezininzi

Isiphumo esinyuswayo sesi sigqibo kukuphucula ukukhusela ulawulo lukarhulumente kwimimandla yorhulumente nephondo loluntu ngeli xesha iChunga lingenayo ukukwazi ukuhlasela. Ngezantsi sifushaniso samatyala achaphazelayo kwanentsingiselo yawo kwiimeko ezahlukeneyo ezingokomthetho.

  • Uhlanga lweCheroke v. Georgia [1831]] imisiwe ukuba izizwe azikho “kumazwe asemzini” kwiinjongo zeQumrhu III, ziqonda ngokugqibeleleyo ukuba amazwe kunye nezizwe ziyabelana ngokuzikhusela kwisuti nganye. Le meko ihlala ibalulekile kwiimpikiswano zale mihla zombuso-mazwe malunga nogamgamga, oovimba bendalo, kunye nolawulo.
  • USELE VERTION of Florida v. Florida [1966]] wavuma ukuba iBhunga alinakukwazi ukukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu lwesizwe phantsi kweGatya I. Le mpahla yenzelwe ukonakaliswa kolawulo oluchasene nolawulo phantsi kwemithetho enjenge yiFair Labor Standard Act, iMelika enobukhubazeko (AISihlomelo I), kunye noHluka lweXesha lokuSebe, ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga lisebenze ngokusemthethweni phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMgaqo-wo-Mgaqo-siseko we-14.
  • Alden v. Maine (1999): ukhuseleko olwandisiweyo kwiinkundla zikarhulumente ukwenzela iimfuno zikarhulumente. Ngenxa yoko, abaqeshwa bakarhulumente abanako ukumangalela umqeshi wabo ngenxa yentlawulo karhulumente neyure yeyure yayo nayiphi na inkundla ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uvume okanye iBhunga ngokufanelekileyo i-brodgess ukutyhubela kwiCandelo 5 lomthetho.
  • IKhomishini ye-Maritime v. UGunyazo lweQumrhu laseMzantsi Carolina [2002]: ukhuseleko oluphezulu lwezolawulo lwezwe. Amaqela obuqu akanakusebenzisa inkqubo yezolawulo ukunyanzelisa amatyala ukuthobela imithetho ye-ovential comgator; kufuneka axhomekeke kwizenzo zomthetho zolawulo ngurhulumente worhulumente ngokwawo.
  • [FLT] Fulton v. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia [202] Ngelixesha ingesiso isigqibo solawulo oluphezulu, yaqinisa [ imfundiso encinci [ yokukhululeka komGaqo-siseko. Amazwe akafuni ukuphembelela ukukhusela ukubotshelelwa kwempahla kumagosa kumalungelo omgaqo-siseko aqhubekayo.

La matyala adityaniswe kunye enza isakhiwo apho amazwe anandipha ukhuseleko oluphangaleleyo ekumangalweni ngasese, kodwa ngaphandle okuphawulekayo koncedo neesuti ezingaphambili eziziswa ngurhulumente worhulumente. Imithwalo ngoku inzima kumarhamente azimeleyo afuna ukunyanzelisa amalungelo omthetho karhulumente karhulumente azimeleyo nxamnye namazwe, ngokufuthi efuna ukuba abonise ukuba iBhunga elihlomela ukunqanda ukunqandwa kwengxaki yabucala kwaye lenze njalo phantsi kwegunya elisemthethweni.

Ulwalathiso Neengxaki Zexesha Elizayo

Ingcaciso yeNkundla Ephakamileyo ithi ukukhusela ulawulo lwesizwe kuya kuhlala kusikhusela ngamandla kwimibandela emininzi, kodwa imibandela emininzi engalungiswanga kunye neenguqu ezinokuyiguqula isenokuyiguqula le mfundiso. Abaphengululi nabasebenzi abasemthethweni baqwalasela ngokusondeleyo le mibandela ilandelayo.

Ukuhlaziywa kweNkcubeko ngaphantsi kweCandelo 5 loMphetho-mda we-14

INkundla iye yasoloko ikholelwa ukuba iNkundla ingazikhusela ngokwamandla esizwe xa iqinisekisa ukunikezelwa kweSigqibo soLawulo lweMbetho seshumi elinesine, njengaku iDolophu yaseBoerne v. Flores (1997) kunye [[FLT]] ne[FLT] iNQUM]NVA] [NVADA] ISebe LeziNguquko zoluntu v. [IIzibonelo] [FLT] [ikhululo] [[FLT]] [[FLT] , ixhasa ukuxoba phantsi kwelungiselelo lentsapho neSibonelo seMithetho yezo yezonyango, ukufumanisa ukungaphicoko-Gwa kwemiqatha kwemiqatha yemiqathango yoluntu. Noko ke, [ku-Foltrad] kwi-Advom yemigromes yoncedo lwamanyuko-AD, ingulogovuvuvuvuvuvuvu, ukuba ifumana oluthe ukuvuvuvunywa kwemeko,

Isivumelwano Sesizwe neWaiver

I-States ingasiphazamisa isogoso-gono solawulo oluphezulu ngokuvuma, ngokucacileyo okanye ngokuthabatha inxaxheba kwiinkqubo zikarhulumente ezincedayo kwi-apiters. INkundla itolike ngokucuthayo: kwi- Sossamon v. Texas [20], yakholelwa ukuba ukwamkela imali yezolawulo phantsi kweLizwe Lenkolo Elisebenzisayo neSqualitivealtive Act ayizange ibe ngumkhuseli wezono. Ngokunjalo, i-Vrigia Iofisi yeSikhuseli soKhuselo ne-Advoctacy. (20) yayikholelwa ukuba ukungachazinzi kwemeko ngokusuka nje ngokudala ukuba kuzise i-fashoni. Imeko zexesha elizayo ziya kunokuthi kusini nakuthetha ngendlela ecacileyo, nokuba ngaba injalo kwiimeko ezithile zezokuba ithelela ekungeneni kwe-R.[FLT.[FG.3:]

Ukusetyenziswa Kweendawo Ezitsha: Imfihlelo Yogcino - lwazi, Ukutshintsha Kwemozulu Nemipu

Ukwandiswa kwemimandla edityanisiweyo ye-Intenince Portability ne-Accounting Act (HIPAA), amaqela azimeleyo angenakumangalelwa yi-data enziwa ngabameli bakarhulumente, ukutshintsha kwemozulu ngokuchasene nezi zixhobo eziluncedo, kunye nocelomngeni lokwalathisa imiqathango yemipu. Ngomzekelo, phantsi kwe-Healmospitance Portive and Accounting Act (HIPAA), amaqela angenako ukumangalela amatyala ngenxa yokuqhekezwa kogcino-lwazi kuba i-HIPAA ayikhuthanga ngxaki. Ngokufanayo, ukumangalelwa kwemozulu okubangelwa ngamaqela angawedwa ngokukhutshwa kwemiqathango okanye umkhukuliseli wemi kumazwe. Inkundla isenokubuzwa ukuba igqibe enoba zizenzo ezithile zesizwe (umz., ukusebenza kwesityalo samalahle) kusenza umkhuseli wezo wokhuseleko okanye ozi omtsha.

Malunga noHlaziyo lwesibini, emva kwe-New York State Rifle & Priston Association v. Bruen, imithetho yemipu ijongene nohlolo oluphezulu. Amatyala asenokufuna imimiselo nxamnye namagosa ombuso phantsi Ex i-e Young, kodwa abanako ukuphinda bafumane umonakalo osuka kwimo ngokwayo. Inkundla ejikelezayo i-jurisprance kwimigqeba ingavula ucango lwenkululeko ebanzi echasene nokhuseleko.

Izabelo zoHlaziyo ezingokwasemthethweni nezokweejaji

Abanye abaphengululi baye bacebisa ukuba kuvunyelwe iNgqungquthela yeshumi elinesibhozo ivumele iNkundla ikhuseleke kwiNkundla phantsi kweGatya I, ngaloo ndlela ibuyisela umva SAMINOLE FUMBHA. Abanye baxhasa imithetho karhulumente yokuba imo yemeko ithe ifumane imali yemali yemali ekwimeko ecacileyo yokuthintelwa kwemeko ecacileyo xa ithetha izinto ezithile ezithe ngqo, kodwa oku kubonakala ukuba akukhange kunikwe sixhobo seNkulwa kweNkundla yezomthetho. Kwicala eligweba, iNkunga umgaqo wokuzikhusela ngokufunda i-A1, isithintela i-a i-mali efunekayo, ilingana nokulingana nentengo zangaphambili, kodwa kubonakala ngathi inikwe ngokungenakubonwa kakuhle ukuba inkculo yeNkulo yakutshanje.

Olunye utshintsho olunokwenzeka kusetyenziso olubanzi lwe u-Ex Young uluvo lokuvumela iisuti ngokuchasene nabaphathi-mikhosi bamazwe naxa unyango lufuna ukusebenza kwesizwe. Umzekelo, Whole Mamen’s Health v. Hellerstedt[[FLT]] [2020], iNkundla ivumele ukunyanzeliswa komthetho weTexas ngokukhupha nokungawanyamezeli amagosa karhulumente ngaphandle kokukhusela. Iimeko zexesha elizayo ezibandakanya ugcino-mthetho olubalulekileyo lungabona ukwandisa iNkunga kwiNkundla okanye ukuvumelana kwale mfundiso kuxhomekeke ekunene komgaqo wesibo esibonda.

Isiphelo

Ikamva lokhuseleko lolawulo lombuso liya kuxonxwa kukuvuma kweNkundla ePhakamileyo ukunamathela kwimizekelo yayo esekelwe kurhulumente kunye namandla eBhunga ukuba ngumthetho owenziwe ngokusebenza osinda kuvavanyo lomgaqo-siseko phantsi kweCandelo 5. Okwangoku, amaphondo anandipha ukhuseleko olubanzi kwimiqathango yangasese, kodwa ngaphandle kwenkululeko nesuti zikarhulumente karhulumente olawulayo ziwagcina ebekelwonakalisayo ngokomGaqo-siseko. Abafundi-mfundo, kunye nooogqirha abasemthethweni kufuneka bajonge amatyala azayo, afana nemiqathango yemeko enzima yemekobume, imimiselo yemekobume kunye nemithetho yokuvota, njengoko iza kunikela isahluko esilandelayo kweli bali liphendulayo.

Uxanduva phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente namalungelo omntu ngamnye alunakuconjululwa ngokusisigxina. Njengoko iNkundla iqhubeka ivavanya ezi mdlalo zikhuphisanayo, imfundiso yokuzikhusela kolawulo oluphezulu iza kuhlala ibalulekile, kwaye idla ngokuphikisana ``isiqalo somthetho-siseko waseMerika. Ukuqonda izigqibo zakutshanje neziseko zazo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofuna ukuqhuba ulawulo olusemthethweni lwe-rhulumente kwinkulungwane yama-21.