Imfihlelo Ehlala Ihleli: Imbali Nendaleko Yokhuseleko Olubini Lobungozi KuMthetho WaseMerika

Umgaqo wengozi ephindwe kabini umi njengenye yezikhuseli ezinokuhlonelwa kumthetho wezaphuli-mthetho waseMelika. Iqinisekisa ukuba akukho mntu uza kuzanywa kaninzi ngenxa yetyala elifanayo, ikhusi elenzelwe ukukhusela urhulumente ophazanyisiweyo, ukukhusela isidima somntu ngamnye, nokuqinisekisa ukuba imigaqo esemthethweni igqibele. Eli nqaku libonisa imvelaphi enzulu yengozi ephindwe kabini kwimvelaphi yalo yemithetho yamaNgesi eqhelekileyo, ngokusetyenziswa kwayo ekufunyanisweni kweSinyusi sesihlanu, kwiinkcazelo zale mihla ezintsonko ezintsonkothileyo eziqhubeka zibumba imida yaso.

Ukuqonda iingozi eziphindiweyo kubalulekile kuye nabani na ofunda inkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho lwaseMerika, umthetho wezomgaqo-siseko, okanye ububanzi bamalungelo abantu. Asingomthetho othe ngqo kodwa yimfundiso ephilayo yokuba iinkundla ziye zayiphucula indlela yokuphendula kwiinyaniso ezintsha ezingokwengcamango, ukusuka kwimiba ephosakeleyo nakwizibongozo zokudibanisa phakathi korhulumente kunye nolawulo lwezikhundla. Ngokuhlolisisa imbali yakhe kunye nendaleko, sifumana ukuqonda indlela umthetho olungelelanisa ngayo umdla karhulumente ekumangaleleni ulwaphulo-mthetho nxamnye nelungelo lomntu lokugqibela nokungagonyazwa.

Imvelaphi Yomthetho Oqhelekileyo WesiNgesi

Ingcamango yengozi ephindwe kabini ayizange yenziwe ngokupheleleyo ukusuka ekumisweni kwamaMelika. Umnombo wayo ubuyela emva eNgilani yamaxesha aphakathi, apho ingcamango yokuba umntu akafanele avavanywe kabini ngenxa yetyala elifanayo ngokuthe ngcembe yavela kwimpikiswano phakathi kwegunya lobukumkani namalungelo aqhelekileyo. Iinkundla zamandulo zamaNgesi zasivuma isicelo esaziwa njenge [ u-aurefeis Confirence [ (ungaso sona sikhululwe) kunye ityala elinogwetywa [, (ongaphambili ligwetyiwe ligwetyelwe), livumela ummangalelwa ukuba agwetywe kwityala lesibini ngokubonisa ukuba sele egwetyiwe kwityala elifanayo.

Ngenkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe, umthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi wawuvelise umthetho onzima nxamnye nomngcipheko ophindiweyo, nangona wawungekho mgangathweni. Ityala elidume kakubi likaMhlekazi Thomas More ngo 1535, umzekelo, labonisa ubungozi bomgaqo xa ezopolitiko ziza kugqitha kwisithethe somthetho. Noko ke, ingcamango yabanjwa njengenxalenye yelifa elibanzi lamaNgesi lamalungelo, kuquka nesiqinisekiso sikaMagna Carta sokuba akukho mntu okhululekileyo oya kohlwaywa ngaphandle komgwebo osemthethweni woontanga bakhe. Xa amajoni ethontela ethoba iAtlantiki, ayephethe ezi zithethe zomthetho kunye nabo.

AmaMerika Athatyathwe Ebuthane NoMthetho Wesihlanu Ohlaziyiweyo

Kumazwe aseMerika alawulwa ngamathanga, ukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini lwalukho ngokuyintloko ngomthetho oqhelekileyo ongazange ubhalwe ngokungqalileyo kunokuba kubhalwe amalungiselelo acacileyo omthetho okanye umGaqo-siseko. Noko ke, amathanga aliqela, alinga iziqinisekiso ezibhaliweyo. IMassachusetts Body of Liberties ka 1641, umzekelo, yavakalisa ukuba "akukho mntu oya kuvavanywa kabini ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho olufanayo" la mabinzana abonisa ukukhula kwemvakalelo yokuba amandla okugweba kufuneka alinganiselwe.

Emva kweMvukelo, olu hlanga lutsha lwajamelana nomsebenzi wokwakha urhulumente wesizwe onamagunya adwelisweyo. IBhili yamaLungelo, eyamkelwa ngo1791, yayinenjongo yokunyanzela loo rhulumente. UMthetho wesihlanu wokuHlaziya wawuquka igalelo elibini lengozi kwicandelo layo lokugqibela: "kungekho mntu uza kubekwa phantsi kwetyala elifanayo ukuze abekwe engozini ephindwe kabini yobomi okanye isithonga." Le ndlela yokubhala yayibhalwe ngqo kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, kodwa intsingiselo yayo echanileyo yayiza kuthabatha iinkulungwane ukucacisa ngokupheleleyo.

Kubalulekile ukuphawula ukuba igalelo lengozi ephindwe kabini ekuqaleni lalisebenza kurhulumente worhulumente worhulumente wesizwe kuphela. Hayi de kwaba ngu 1969, Bhenton v. Maryland, ukuba iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaquka igalelo elichasene namazwe ngokuchasene noMphetho-weshumi elinesine. Eso sigqibo senza ukhuseleko lube nelungelo elingundoqo elisebenzayo kuyo yonke iUnited States, landisa ngokunzulu ukufikelela kwalo.

Iimfundiso Eziphambili Zezomthetho Namatyala Asezweni

Imfundiso Yabalawuli Abahlukeneyo

Enye yezona zibalulekileyo ezithi zangenelwa ngokuphindwa kwempikiswano, kwaye `ingcaciso zengozi ephindwe kabini yimfundiso eyahlukileyo. Phantsi kwalo mthetho, urhulumente wesizwe kunye norhulumente ngamnye uthathwa njengoongangamsha abahlukeneyo. Ngoko ke, isenzo esinye esiphula umthetho worhulumente noworhulumente singenziwa siso sona sisodwa ngaphandle kokuqhuba imposiso ephindwe kabini. INkundla Ephakamileyo yaqinisekisa lo mgaqo kwi [[FLT: 0] United States v. Lanza [195] [195]] (19222]) kwaye kamva Brinoniartkus v. I-Illinonia [195]] [195]] ne[FLT]

Ubuchule bubobobo bokulungisa ihambo enye bungabumba amatyala amabini ahlukeneyo nxamnye neziqu ezibini zomthetho. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi oku kungakhokelela kulwaphulo-mthetho olulandelelanayo olucinezelayo, ingakumbi kwiimeko eziphezulu. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaphinda yayiqinisekisa imfundiso kwi Grigg v. United States [209]), ibambe loo nqaqatho i- decisis yakhetha isicelo sayo esiqhubekayo, nangona ifuna ukushiywa kwayo.

Xa Ingozi Incamathisela

Ukhuseleko kwingozi ephindwe kabini luqala xa ityala lejaji liqukunjelwe liqukunjelwe. Kwityala labachopheli-tyala, kuqutyulwa ngengozi xa inkundla yabachopheli betyala ibekwa kwindawo yokuhlala kwaye ifungqwe. Ukuvavanywa kwebhentshi, kuyaqukwa xa ingqina lokuqala lifungqwe. Eli xesha linokugqiba enoba ukuvavanywa kwesibini kuvaliwe okanye kuvunyelwe.

Crist v. Bretz (1978), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi umthetho karhulumente wokuncamathela usebenza ngokulinganayo kumazwe ukudlula kuMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine. Esi sigqibo siqinisekisa ukudibana ekuchazeni ixesha elinzima xa iqhina eliphindiweyo linyuka.

Ukungachananga Nokuthandwa

Kwenzeka ntoni xa ukutyala kuphela ngaphambi kwexesha ngenxa yetyala eliphosakeleyo okanye xa ummangalelwa efaka isiqinisekiso ngempumelelo? Iimpendulo zicacile. Ummangalelwa angaphinda alungiswe emva kovavanyo oluphosakeleyo ukuba ijaji yetyala ivakalisa uvavanyo oluphosakeleyo ngenxa "yemfuneko"" elifana nejaji elifileyo okanye impazamo engundoqo ye-procedtural. Kwimeko yenqanawa United States v. Perez [1824], iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yathiswa yiyo engumzekelo obalaseleyo wokubonakalisa imfuneko ecacileyo, ivumela ukuqulungela kwakhona ngaphandle kokwaphula ityala ngokuphindwe kabini.

Kodwa ukuba umtshutshisi ngabom ubangela ukumangalelana ngemposiso ukufumana uncedo lobuchule, ukuqulunqwa kwakhona kungavalwa. Ogon v. Kennedy [1982], iNkundla ibeka ibhatle ephezulu: kuphela xa umtshutshisi ezama ukuxhokonxa ityala eliphosakeleyo, uza kuphinda-phinda ityala. Lo mlinganiselo mxinwa ukhusela umdla karhulumente ekulinganisweni ngexa efuna eyona ndlela ingalunganga.

Xa ummangalelwa ebhenela ekuvumeni nasekuphumeleleni, umthetho jikelele ngowokuba uvavanyo kwakhona luvumelekile, njengoko umngcipheko wokuqala ungakapheli. Noko ke, umGaqo-siseko uyalela ukuqulunqwa kwakhona ukuba inkundla yezakhono ifumana ubungqina obunganele ukuxhasa isigqibo. Bursks v. United States [19978]), iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba ukuguqulwa okusekelwe kubungqina obunganeleyo kuyalingana nokungasivaleli, ngaloo ndlela ibhari ifumana kwakhona. Lo mahluko uqinisa umvalo lwezigwebo, nokuba ziguquliwe kwisibheno.

Isohlwayo Esininzi Novavanyo Lwezithinteli

Umgaqo wengozi ophindwe kabini ukhusela kwisohlwayo esiphindaphindiweyo solwaphulo-mthetho olunye. Umbuzo ongundoqo usoloko uthetha ukuba imigaqo emibini yemithetho ichaza into enye okanye izaphuli-mthetho ezahlukeneyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseka uvavanyo olusemgangathweni kwi- shburger v. United States [1932]): ukuba umthetho ngamnye ufuna ubungqina bento engavunyelwanga yiyo omnye, ngoko ke zizenzo zokwahlukeneyo, kwaye isohlwayo ezininzi ziyavunyelwa. Ukuba omnye umthetho uquka ityala elincinane lelinye, ukurhoxiswa kokubini ukusokisa.

Olu vavanyo luye lwasetyenziswa kwiimeko ezininzi, ukusuka ekurhwetyweni kweziyobisi ukuya ekuqhatheni. Noko ke, iNkundla ikwabonile ukuba izindlu zowiso-mthetho zinakho ukugunyazisa ngokuphandle isohlwayo esiphinda-phindiweyo sokuziphatha okufanayo phantsi kwemimiselo eyahlukeneyo, lo gama nje kucacile ukuba zizimisele ukuyiphatha le hambo njengezono ezahlukeneyo. Loo nto ingumbandela wokuyila imigaqo-siseko, hayi umthetho.

Ibhari yelea kunye ne-eparty ephindwe kabini

Uninzi lwamatyala olwaphulo-mthetho aconjululwa ngokufaka isicelo sokucetyiswa, hayi ukuvavanywa. Ingaba ingozi ephindwe kabini ikhusela ummangalelwa ocela ityala? Ngokwesiqhelo, isicelo esinetyala ngokwaso sisebenza njengesiqinisekiso, kwaye ukunyanzelisa okanye ukuvavanya kungasikelwa umda. Rickets v. Adamson [1987], iNkundla ibambelele kwelokuba ummangalelwa oyaphula isivumelwano uzakuphinda abekwe esichebeni, kwanokuba isivumelwano besinciphile ngaphambili. Oku kubonisa ukuba umphelo wokugqibela wesicelo unokuba unelungelo.

Omnye umlinganiso obalulekileyo ngumthetho ongomthetho emva kokuba ummangalelwa esele ebohlwayelwe ngenxa yehambo efanayo kwisenzo esahlukeneyo. Umzekelo, ukuba umntu ukhululwe kulwaphulo-mthetho, abanakugwetywa kamva ngenxa yetyala elincinane eliqukiweyo. Lo mthetho wamiselwa ngokuqinileyo ku- LuLugree v. United States [1957], eyayithi ithetha ukuba i-arexistent kwimin enkulu yetyala uphinda ulwelo oluncinci.

Iinkcazelo Zale Mihla Nempikiswano

Imali yezoshishino nezorhwebo

Enye yezona ndawo zikhuphisanayo kumthetho wangoku ophindwe kabini kukuba ukulahlekelwa kwempahla esetyenziswayo kubemi okanye ezinye izigwebo ezingengolwaphulo-mthetho zingaba sisohlwayo sesibini. United States v. Ursery [1996], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukulahlwa kwempahla esetyenziswayo kulwaphulo-mthetho akusohlwayi kwaye oko akuxhobisi ingozi ephindwe kabini. Le sigqibo sisombululwe ngokwahlulwa kwiinkundla ezisezantsi, kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ngelithi ukulahlwa kwabemi kunokwenziwa ngokusesikweni, ingakumbi xa ixabiso lento elahlekileyo lithe labangela umonakalo omkhulu.

Ngokufanayo, imvume yolawulo efana nokurhoxiswa kwephepha-mvume okanye ukupheliswa kwezivumelwano zikarhulumente azigqalwa njengesohlwayo ngeenjongo eziphindwe kabini, nokuba zilandela ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho ngenxa yehambo efanayo. INkundla iye yasebenzisa uvavanyo oluneengxenye ezininzi ukuze yahlule phakathi kwesigwebo soluntu nesezaphuli-mthetho, igxininise enoba imvume iyasebenza kusini na ekulungiseni, ekunganikezelini injongo.

Inkqubela-phambili ye Juvenile kunye nengxinano ephindwe kabini

Ukusetyenziswa kwengozi ephindwe kabini kubulungisa babantwana kuvele ngokuphawulekayo. Breed v. Jones [19975], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yathi ukusetyenziswa kobuhlolo-mthetho obuncinane kungu "uphazamiso" oluthi kamva iintambo zibekwe kwityala elifanayo. Inkundla yaqiqa ukuba umngcipheko wokuphulukana nenkululeko kwityala lolutsha ungowona mkhulu ngokwaneleyo ukuqinisekisa ukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini. Eli tyala liphawule inyathelo elikhulu ekuqapheleni amalungelo omgaqo-siseko wolutsha olujongenesenzo sombuso.

Ukunyuswa Kwemijelo Nemithetho Efuna Ukubulala

Ubungozi obuphindwe kabini abuyi kuthinteli ijaji ukuba imisele isigwebo esiqatha esisekelwe kwiinjongo ezingentla, kwanokuba iinkolelo zangaphambili zazingumbandela wolwaphulo-mthetho lokuqala. Le mimiselo isoloko ixhaswe njengendlela esemthethweni yokusebenzisa igunya lowiso-mthetho. Noko ke, iNkundla ibambelele ekubeni urhulumente akanakuvelisa ubungqina bokugwetywa kwangaphambili ngenxa yetyala elingeyonjongo ukuba oko kugwetywa bekungagqibeli ngexesha lolwaphulo-mthetho lwangoku. Oku kuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente akasebenzisi isityholo esisemthethweni njengesixhobo sokukhusela ukumangalelwa kwesityholo esitsha.

Utshintsho Olunokuvela

Imfundiso eyahlukeneyo yeyona igxekwa kakhulu kumthetho wangoku ophindiweyo. IJaji Ginsburg, ephikisanayo ku GEGugush v. United States, iphikisa ukuba le mfundiso ilulaza ixabiso elingundoqo lobungozi obuphindwe kabini kuba ivumela urhulumente ukuba "azame umntu kabini ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho olufanayo" ngokusuka nje ahlule igunya phakathi korhulumente norhulumente. Amanye amazwe aye azama ukulinganisela le mfundiso ngomthetho, kodwa umthetho karhulumente uzama ukuphelisa imigudu enjalo. Iimngxube-ngqungquthela zokuphelisa uqheliselo zitshaye zaphinda zasetyenziswa kwiminyaka yakutshanje, kodwa akukho nyathelo lomthetho liphumelele.

Enye indawo yengxoxo ibandakanya "ulawulo lomntu ngamnye" ukunxaxha okulandelelanayo kwamatyala amabini ahlukeneyo. Ngelixesha iNkundla ePhakamileyo ingakhange ithethe ngqo ngolo hlobo, iinkundla ezisezantsi ngokuqhelekileyo zisebenzisa ingqiqo eyahlukeneyo yemithetho ukuvumela ukutshutshiswa ngamazwana amaninzi ukuba enze into efanayo. Oku kungadala umsebenzi owenzelwe ukuphendula ngokulandelelana nokuphakamisa amaxhala anzulu okusesikweni, ingakumbi xa amaphondo elungelelanisa uphando lwawo.

Ingqikelelo Yamazwe Ngamazwe

Ukhuseleko oluphindwe kabini lwahluka ehlabathini lonke. Amazwe amaninzi, kuquka iKhanada noManyeneyo, awalandeli imfundiso eyahlukileyo yolawulo. Ku-European Union, umgaqo we- u-bines kwi-irem jikelele ubophelele ityala lesibini kwisenzo esinye kanye xa ugwebo lokugqibela lunikezelwe ngulo naliphi na ilungu lorhulumente. I-United States ihlala ingumntu ovumela ukuchotshelwa kwemiqathango ezininzi, inyani etsale ingqalelo kumalungelo abantu kunye nabaphengululi bobucukubhede.

Ukuqonda ezi ndlela zezizwe ngezizwe kungazisa utshintsho kumthetho waseMerika. Abanye abaphengululi bomthetho bacebise ukuba kubekwe umthetho oza kubekwa urhulumente emva kwetyala lomthetho lokuziphatha okufanayo, ngaphandle kokuba inzala karhulumente yomelele ngendlela ekhethekileyo. Abanye baye baphikisa ngelithi iNkundla ePhakamileyo ifanele ilawule widget v. United States kwaye bakholelwa ukuba imposiso ephindwe kabini ngokwayo iyayilela ityala elilandelelanayo lesizwe.

Isiphelo

Icandelo eliphindiweyo lengozi lihlala liyisivikelo esibalulekileyo kwinkqubo yobulungisa baseMerika. Ithintela urhulumente ekusebenziseni ubuncwane bakhe obukhulu ukuthoba abamangalelwa ngokuvavanywa ngokuphindaphindiweyo, ukuhlonela ukugqibela kwemigwebo, kwaye iphakamisa umgaqo wokuba umntu angafanele anyanzeleke ukuphila phantsi kwesoyikiso esizingisileyo sokuphinda abulawe. Kodwa njengokuba eli nqaku libonisile, igalelo alingomthetho opheleleyo. Ukusetyenziswa kwalo kutshintsha imithetho yobuchule yokudibanisa, ingcaciso yetyala elinye, kunye nokuchazwa komphathi ophetheyo.

Kubafundi nabafundisi bomthetho-siseko, ingozi ephindwe kabini inikela uphando olutyebileyo lwemiba yetyala ngendlela okunokuveliswa ngayo umbhalo omfutshane womgaqo-siseko ngokunxulumene neenkulungwane zokutolika. Imidlalo ephakathi kokuthembeka kwembali, imfuneko esebenzisekayo, kunye neengcamango ezigqwethekileyo zokusesikweni iyaqhubeka ibumba imfundiso. Njengokuba iindlela ezintsha zokumangalelana ngetyala eliziimeko ezininzi zikarhulumente okanye amandla alungelelanisiweyo emisebenzi karhulumente, iza kubizwa ukuba icocwe imida kwakhona.

Ekugqibeleni, ukhuseleko lwengozi ephindwe kabini asingomthetho nje oqhelekileyo; lubonisa ukuzinikela okunzulu kurhulumente olinganiselweyo. Iqinisekisa ukuba emva kokuba urhulumente efumene ithuba elipheleleyo nelifanelekileyo lokungqina ukuba unetyala, kufuneka ume phantsi. Lo mmiselo uhlala ubalulekile namhlanje njengoko wawunjalo xa uMphetho-mda wesihlanu waqala ukuthanjiswa.