Imbali Nenjongo Yokukhangela Nokulinganisela Kurhulumente waseUnited States

Umgaqo wokuhlola nokulungelelana yimiqathango yokwakheka karhulumente worhulumente worhulumente we-United States. Yinkqubo elungiswe kakuhle eyenzelwe ukukhusela naliphi na isebe elilelodwa (_legislative, isebe elilawulayo, okanye ikomiti yokugweba ) ekuqokeleleni amandla angathintelwayo. Ngokunika isebe ngalinye elinamandla ahlukeneyo kunye nendlela yokulinganisela izenzo zabanye, umGaqo-siseko udala inkqubo enamandla yegunya kunye nolawulo lomntu omnye. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa imvelaphi yembali, isiseko somgaqo-siseko, kunye neziphumo zale mihla zokuhlola kunye nolungelelaniso kwinkqubo yezobupolitika eMelika, ibonisa indlela olukhusela ngayo oluhlala luhleliyo nolawulo olunetyala.

Imvelaphi Yembali Yokwahlukana Kwamagunya

Abayili bomGaqo-siseko waseUnited States basebenzisa iinkulungwane zeengcamango zobupolitika namava asebenzisekayo. Ingcamango yokwahlula igunya likarhulumente ukuze kuthintelwe ugonyamelo ayizange iqaliswe eFiladelfi ngowe - 1787; yavela kwiingcamango zamandulo zamaGrike nezamaRoma, ngentandabulumko yoQiniso, yaye yalolwa yimilo yabemi bobukoloni phantsi kolawulo lwaseBritani nokusilela kwamaGatya eMigaqo-nkqubo.

Isiseko samandulo nesokukhanyiselwa

Iingcinga zezobupolitika ukusuka ku-Aristotle ukuya kuJohn Locke zathi amandla ajolisekileyo onakalisa. Noko ke, eyona mpembelelo ingqalileyo kumafashoni aseMelika, yayisisithandi sobulumko saseFransi [[FLT: 0]]. UBaron de Montesquieu. Kumsebenzi wakhe we-1748] Umoya woMthetho [[[FLT]] [[FLT]], [3]], uMontesquieus waphikisa ukuba inkululeko igcinwe kakuhle xa i-propati, isikhulu, kunye nemisebenzi yorhulumente igcinwa yahlukene kwaye ibekwe kwimizimba eyahlukileyo. Walumkisa ukuba “xa amandla omthetho kunye nolawulo lumanyaniwe kumntu omnye, okanye kumzimba omnye we-mastistein, ayinako ukuphinda-kane." i-Montequiesquis kwaye ibhalwe ngobuchule obucacikeneyo ngexesha elikhaphulo kwi-Genetiso kuMthetho-se.[Foctive:][Fla]

Amava Elizwe Eliwakhe Nolawulo LwamaBritane

Abenzi bolawulo lwama-America babenamava obuqu kwinkqubo engazange iphumelele. Phantsi kolawulo lwamaBritane, abalawuli berhafu babedla ngokuba nempembelelo kwigunya eliphezulu kunye nelomthetho, kwaye iBhunu lalinokwaya ukumiselwa kwemithetho ye-coloni. Ukucaciswa kwenkululeko [ ngokungqalileyo] kwadwelisa izikhalazo ezifana nokuthi uKumkani “ayamkele iMithetho, eyona nto ilungileyo neyimfuneko kuluntu lonke” kwaye “yenza aBagwebi baxhomekeke kukuthanda kwakhe kuphela. Oku kwakhuthaza ukuzimisela kwabasebenzi ukwenza urhulumente apho kungekho gunya linye linokuyiphazamisa ukuthanda kwabantu okanye amanye amasebe.

Ubuthathaka Bemibandela Engokwalathisa

Emva kwenkululeko, isakhelo sokuqala sikarhulumente, iArticles zoNxulumano [1], yadala urhulumente obuthathaka ophakathi ongenagunya lolawulo okanye isalathisi. IBhunga laba negunya lobuzwe kodwa langenalo igunya lokunyanzelisa imithetho, irhafu, okanye ulawulo lwezorhwebo. Iziphumo zaba yingquzulwano: izicelo zengqungquthela, umnikelo wesizwe wawungenanto, kwaye i-Shay’s Registry (1786-1787) yabonisa ukungakwazi kukarhulumente ukugcina ucwangco. Oku kungaphumeleli kweenkokeli abafana noJames Magdeny noAlendersms, ukuba urhulumente onamandla, kodwa ngononophelo, urhulumente wesizwe wayeyimfuneko.

ISiseko somGaqo-siseko: Amasebe Amathathu, Inkqubo enye

UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S., wagunyaziswa ngo-1788 kwaye wasebenza ngo-188, wasekwa ngamasebe amathathu alinganayo: uwiso-mthetho (uMongameli kunye namaqumrhu olawulo), kunye neejaji (iinkundla zezezimali, ezikhokelwa yiNkundla ePhakamileyo). Isebe ngalinye linamagunya alo adwelisweyo kunye neembopheleleko, kwaye ngalinye linezixhobo ezikhethekileyo zokuhlola amandla abanye ababini. Oku akuko ukwahlukana okungqongqo kodwa kunoko kuyinkqubo egunya elilawuliweyo [[FLT: 0].

Isebe Elinomthetho (Ingcaphephe I)

IBhunga liqumrhu lokwenza umthetho, eliyilwe yiNdlu yabameli neNdlu yeeNtsimbi. Amandla alo ayintloko kukubhala, ukuphikisana, nokuwisa umthetho, kodwa likwaneengqwalasela ezibalulekileyo kwamanye amasebe:

  • [[FLT: 0] Appliation Power: Congress ilawula uqingqo-mali lwezwe; akukho mali inokuchithwa ngaphandle kwemvume yayo, inika ukuxhathisa ngaphezu kwamanyathelo ombutho.
  • I-Advice kunye neSivumelwano (Inkonzo): Indlu yeNtsimbi mayiqinisekise ukumiswa komongameli kubagwebi besizwe, oonobhala beKhabhinethi, oopolisa, namanye amagosa aphezulu.
  • [[[UMTL:0] Isivumelwano sezizwe ngezizwe esixoxwe nguMongameli sifuna ivoti yekota ezimbini-ntathu ukuze isebenze.
  • Indlu ingalikhupha ityala (imali) amagosa karhulumente, kuquka uMongameli, “ngesizathu, ukunyoba, okanye amanye amatyala aphezulu kunye nokungagqibeki.” Indlu yecawa ithatha ityala kwaye ingakwazi ukulisusa igosa ngevoti ezimbini-ntathu.
  • [[UMTL:0]] O-o ukungananzi kwesandi: Ukuba uMongameli uvulela umthetho, iBhunga lingayoyisa loo nto ngesibini sesithathu sobuninzi kumagumbi omabini.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Ikomiti: ingaphanda imisebenzi yesebe elilawulayo, amaxwebhu namangqina angaphantsi, kwaye inyanzelisa ubungqina.

Isebe Elilawulayo (Article II)

UMongameli uyintloko yesebe elilawulayo, ujongene nokunyanzelisa imithetho karhulumente, ukuyalela umkhosi, nokuqhuba inkqubo yelizwe lasemzini. Ii-checks zoMongameli kwamanye amasebe ziquka:

  • Ulawulo lwe-Veto: UMongameli angawuchasa umthetho odluliswe yiBhunga, enyanzela abenzi bomthetho ukuba baphinde baqwalasele okanye bafune ulawulo oluphezulu ukuba lungalawuleki.
  • Amandla okuMisela: uMongameli ubeka abagwebi besizwe, kuquka abagwebi beNkundla ePhakamileyo, kwakunye namagosa aphezulu. Nangona la madinga efuna isiqinisekiso seCanon, uMongameli ulawula ukhetho.
  • [[NTLA:0] Amandla e-Pradon: UMongameli angaxolela aze aphinde afumane ii-parimes zolwaphulo-mthetho lwaseluntwini (ngaphandle kokungathobeli), enika ityala kumandla esebe eligwebayo nakwizigqibo zabatshutshisi.
  • [[Umthetho:0] Imiyalelo esebenzayo neyalathisiweyo: UMongameli angakhupha imiyalelo ebophelelekileyo kwisebe eliphetheyo ukulawula imisebenzi kunye nokuzalisekisa imithetho, nangona imiyalelo enjalo ingacelw'icinezelwa enkundleni okanye ingadinwa ngomthetho.
  • uMyaleli kwiNtloko: Ngexesha iBhunga libhengeza imfazwe, uMongameli ulawula amajoni kwaye angathumela amajoni iintsuku ezingamashumi amathandathu phantsi kwesigqibo semfazwe.

Isebe Lejaji (Article III)

Iinkundla zikarhulumente, kunye neNkundla ePhakamileyo encotsheni, zitolika imithetho, zicombulula iimpikiswano, ziqinisekisa ukuba imimiselo kunye nezenzo zolawulo zihambelana nomGaqo-siseko. Iingqi zogwebo kwamanye amasebe zezezi:

  • Jodicial Review: Amandla okubhengeza imithetho okanye imisebenzi yesebe eliphetheyo engekho simini. Eli gunya lamiselwa kwi Madison [1803]. [iSigwebi esiyintloko uJohn Marshall] wabhala ukuba “kugxininiswa kwephondo lesebe lejaji ukuchaza oko umthetho ukukuko.] Eli ligosa elinamandla.
  • [[Ukwahlula-hlula:0] Ukwenziwa kwemithetho: amatyala agqiba indlela imimiselo esebenza ngayo kumatyala athile, ngokunempumelelo imo yenkqubo yokubumba ngaphakathi kwemida ebekwe yiBhunga.
  • Iintlanga kunye neZicwangciso: Iinkundla zingamisa izenzo zesebe eliphetheyo ngemiyalelo kwaye zinokuyalela urhulumente ukuba enze (okanye ayeke) ngeendlela ezithile.
  • [[FLT: 0] Impinda yeMiboniso yoMongameli: INkundla ePhakamileyo igqibe kwimida yamandla olawulo kwiimeko ezifana ulutsha oluncinci Ikhasi & Lamp; Tube. Co. Sawier (1952)[FL:3], eyathi yavala ukuphambanyiswa koMongameli Truman ngezinyithi zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yase Korea.

Injongo Yokuhlola Nokulungelelana

Abasebenzi befreyimi abayiliweyo bahlola baze balinganisene neenjongo eziliqela ezinxulumeneyo engqondweni. Ezi njongo zisengundoqo kulawulo lomgaqo-siseko wamaMelika namhlanje.

Ukukhusela Izixhobo Namandla Anenkxaso

James Madison, ku Uluhlu lwezikhundla uNo. 51, waphikisa ngokudumileyo: “Isikhundla kufuneka silwele ukulwa nephulo.” Wachaza ukuba isakhiwo sikarhulumente kufuneka sincede isebe ngalinye likwazi ukuxhathisa ukungenelela kwabanye. Ngokunika isebe ngalinye “indlela zomgaqo-siseko neentshukumisa zobuqu zokuxhathisa”, umGaqo-siseko uqinisekisa ukuba akukho cebo okanye isebe elinokulawula. Le yeyona njongo ibalulekileyo: ukukhusela inkululeko ngokuhambisa igunya.

Ukukhuthaza Inkululeko Nokulalanisa

Ngenxa yokuba isebe ngalinye lingavala ezinye, inkqubo inyanzelisa uxoxiso kunye nokuvumelana. Isivumelwano kufuneka sisinde kwinkqubo yowiso-mthetho kumagumbi amabini, sifumane utyikityo lukaMongameli (okanye i-veto exonxiweyo), size sidlulise umbutho womgaqo-siseko kwiinkundla. Oku kucotha kwangabom inkqubo yowiso-mthetho kubangelwa ngamaqhinga. Kuthintela ukungxama, imithetho engacacisiweyo kwaye kukhuthaza igalelo elibanzi, intsebenziswano, kunye nokulungelelanisa phakathi kwamasebe namaqela ezobupolitika.

Ukukhusela Ukukhululeka Komntu Ngamnye

Iingqinipho kunye nolwahlulo lusisiqinisekiso solwahlulo lwamalungelo omntu ngamnye. Ngokwahlula amandla, inkqubo inciphisa ubungozi obuza kucinezelwa ngurhulumente. Kwanokuba elinye isebe liba nengxwelerha ekwantini kwenkululeko yabemi, elinye isebe lingangenelela. Umzekelo, ijaji ingabetha imithetho echasene neBhili yamaLungelo, ngoxa iBhunga linokuhlola iinkqubo zokuhlola ulawulo oluphezulu eziphazamisana nemfihlo. Isimende sokukhulula komlomo, ukucinezela, kunye nendibano ikhuselekile ngakumbi ngenxa yokuba akukho sebe elinye lingaphelisangachasamvo.

Ukukhuthaza ukuphendula nokubonisa ngaphaya

Isebe ngalinye linezixhobo zokufuna inkcazelo nokuthethelela izenzo zezinye. Ukuchotshelwa kweendlebe zeziNgqungquthela, ii-pona, kunye neengxoxo ezithenjiswayo zinyanzela umphathi ukuba achaze izigqibo zalo. Iimbono zejaji zifuna ukuqiqa esidlangalaleni kwaye zimisela imizekelo edibanisa izenzo zexesha elizayo. I-veto kunye nemiyalezo kaMongameli ivavanywa ekuhleni ingcelele ukhetho lweBhunga. Oku kuvelela kwenza izenzo zikarhulumente zibonakale ngakumbi kwaye kwenza amagosa aphendulelwe umthetho kunye nabachongi.

Imizekelo Yembali Ebonisa Ukulungelelana Nokulungelelana

Ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini, le nkqubo iye yavavanywa kwiinkxwaleko ezininzi eziphezulu. Le mizekelo ibonisa indlela uvavanyo nolungelelwaniso olusebenza ngayo ekusebenzeni.

Isigqibo sikaMongameli Andrew Johnson (1868)

Emva kwemfazwe yamakhaya, uMongameli Johnson wangqubana neBhunga ngokumanyana kwenkqubo yokulungisa. IBhunga ladlulisela umthetho we-Ofisi ukuze limise ummiselo wamandla kaMongameli wokususa amagosa eKhabhinethi ngaphandle kwemvume yeNdlu yeNdlu. UJohnson wasiphula isenzo sokudubula nguNobhala weWar Edwin Stanton. Indlu yamcekisa, ityala lendlu laphela ngokumgweba ngevoti enye. Ngoxa uJohnson wahlala eofisini, isiganeko samisela ukuba iBhunga loMphathi lingaphendula umongameli lize limisele umzekelo wokungamvoti wexesha elizayo.

INkundla Ephakamileyo Nenkqubo Entsha (1930)

UMongameli Franklin D. Roosevelt wakwa-New Deal wajongana neenkqubo eziphindaphindiweyo zomGaqo-siseko. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa imithetho emininzi engundoqo, kuquka iNational Industrial Receveation Act. Ekuphenduleni, uRooosevelt wacebisa ukuba “iintlanganiso---” acebe ukudibanisa izigwebo ezingakumbi, iNkundla eyazilahlayo njengegqweba lolawulo lwezolawulo. Oku kwakhokelela iNkulwamvo ukuba ithathe umlinganiselo othe ngqo wokuhlola imimiselo yezoqoqosho, kwaye kwabonisa indlela amasebe anokuqinisekisana ngaphandle kwengxaki yemithetho-siseko somgaqo-siseko, iNkundla yarhobo ishele i-jarisprance, kunye nenkqubo ephinda i-endlalwe.

Igate yamanzi neNixon Tapes (1973-1974)

Ngexesha lehlazo leWatergate, uMongameli uRichard Nixon waqinisekisa ilungelo eliphezulu lokuvala itepes kwiBhunga kunye nabatshutshisi abakhethekileyo. INkundla ePhakamileyo, kwi- United States v. Nixon (1974], ngamxhelo mnye wagqiba ukuba ilungelo eliyintloko aliphelelanga kwaye iikhasethi kufuneka zikhutshwe. Oku kubonisa amandla ejajidicariary ukuvavanya isigqeba, igunya lendlu, kunye nendima yeBhabhinekazi njengelungu lokuvavanya isebenza kunye ukuxhasa umthetho.

IClinton Inkcazo (1998-19999)

UMongameli uBill Clinton wacetyiswa yiNdlu yokuphengulula kunye nesithintelo sobulungisa obunxulumene nehlazo likaMonica Lewinsky. Noko ke, iNdlu yeNdlu yeMasipala, ayiphumelelanga ukufikelela kwinani eliziisithathu ezifunekayo ukuze ivumelelwe, kwaye iClinton yahlala eofisini. Oku kwabalaselisa ubukho bento ezenzekelayo kwinkqubo yokungaphenduli kunye nebhatyi ephezulu efunekayo ukususa umongameli ohleliyo. Kwabonisa nokuba amasebe ezobupolitika angacombulula iimpikiswano ngobuchule obumiselweyo.

Imigaqo elawulayo neNkqutyana-zincwadi kwiNtlanganiso yama-21

Oomongameli bakutshanje baye basebenzisa imiyalelo yabalawuli abaphambili ekuqhubeni phambili iinjongo zomgaqo-siseko xa iBhunga libotshiwe. Umzekelo, uMongameli Barack Obama’s Defered Action for Parents of America (DAPA) inkqubo yathintelwa ziinkundla zikarhulumente kwaye ekugqibeleni yiNkundla ePhakamileyo United States v. Texas (2016)[FLT:] [12] emva kweqhina lesi-4-4-4]. Umongameli uDonald Donald Trump walump wavavanywa kwakhona ngumthetho wokuvala uhambo lwaza yaye ekugqibeleni waxhaswa yiNkulwano ePhakamileyo [[FLTLT:2]. Hawaii (20).[FLTLT].[FLT] [208:3] [16]] emva kweenkowase-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko se-siseko se-siseko se-siseko se-siseko se-siseko se-mvume.

Imibuzo Yale Mihla Neengxoxo Ezingapheliyo

Kwezobupolitika zanamhlanje, inkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelana ijongene nocelomngeni olutsha, ukususela kukwanda kwegunya elilawulayo ukusa ekupheliseni ukwanda nokukhula kwelizwe elilawulayo.

Ukwanda Kwamandla Alawulayo

Oomongameli bale mihla, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ngabaphi na abaququzeleli, baye bathembela ngokukhulayo kwimiyalelo yabalawuli, intlanganiso, kunye nolawulo lwesizwe lokudlula kwiKhomishini elawulayo. Nangona ezi zixhobo ziphantsi komgaqo-siseko kwimida, abagxeki baphikisa ngokuthi bayakufihla ukwahlukana kwamandla kwaye bayakujongela phantsi ukuphendula komthetho. Isigqibo se-Right Sowers Resolution , ehloselwe ukuphinda igunya lobugqeba kwiimbopheleleko zemikhosi, isoloko ingahoywa okanye iphenjelelwa.

Ukuhlolisiswa Kwezogwebo Nokuhlaziywa Kwezobupolitika

Inkqubo yokuziqinisekisa yeNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaba yeyokuphelisa umva, nenkululeko yonqulo ejongene nohlolo olunzulu lweengcamango. Oku kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ngaba ijaji ingahlala ingumxhasi ozimeleyo okanye ukuba iba lisebe lezobupolitika ngokwalo. Kwangaxeshanye, iNkundla iye yathatha amatyala adibeneyo abandakanya ukuqhomfa, amalungelo empuphu, kunye nenkululeko yonqulo, ngemithetho ethi ngamanye amaxesha ibhukuqe imimiselo emide (umz., [[FLLT]] Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization [[FLD:1]] ngo-20222]). Amandla okuhlola kwezomthetho ahlala ekhohlolo olunamandla, kodwa inkululeko yayo ixhomekeke ekuthembeni kwabantu ngokubanzi.

Ulawulo lwengqungquthela kunye notshixo lweGrid

Ulawulo lweBhunga loLawulo, ii-Procespoenas, kunye nophando lubalulekile kumphathi ophezulu. Noko ke, ukuhlaziywa okunzulu kwemimandla engaphandle kuye kwakhokelela ekubeni i-grid lock isoloko ikho, kukwenza kube nzima ngeNgqungquthela ukuvavanya umongameli okanye iinkundla ngokuphumelelayo. Amadabi oqingqo-mali, ukuvalwa korhulumente, ukuvalwa, kunye nolibaziseko ekuqinisekiseni amagosa avavanye inkqubo. Abanye abaphengululi bacebisa utshintsho olunjengommiselo wemithetho yemithetho ye-statocotary kwimiyalelo yegunya, igunya elinamandla loqingqo-mali, okanye ukutshintsha inkqubo yokulungisa ukulingana.

Urhulumente Wolawulo Nezinto Ezixhalabisayo Zesebe Lesine

Amasebe omanyano .[1] Ngokufuthi abizwa “isebe lesine” `lokwenza isigqibo somthetho, impatho-mandla, kunye nemisebenzi yokugweba ngokumisela imithetho, ukunyanzelisa, kunye nokuzinzisa. Oku kusebenza kwamandla kunyusa inkxalabo ngee-checks kunye nolungelelwano kuba amasebe alawulayo kodwa asoloko esebenza ngengqiqo ebanzi. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo kwinjongo ye- i-West Virginia v. EPA (2022)[FL:1], emisela igunya leSikhuthazo soKhuselo Semeko-Mgangatho-bume phantsi kwe-bume “imfundiso ye-majior,” ibonakalisa imigudu yokugweba kwinjongo ye-mviko-mviko-ntelligence.

Ubuxhakaxhaka, imfihlo nokhuseleko lwesizwe

Isizukulwana samanani sivelise ucelomngeni olutsha lokuhlola nokulinganisela. Iinkqubo zophando lwesebe elinolawulo oluphezulu, ukuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi, kunye nokungakhuselwa koburhulumente kwikhompyutha zisebenza ngokusikelwe umda. Inkundla yezobuNgqila beMasipala iSurveillance Act (FISA) yenzelwe ukulungiselela ukuqwalasela ikomiti egwebayo, kodwa abagxeki bayiphikisayo ingxakeko. IBhunga liye lazama ukuhlaziya imithetho yezobucala ukudibanisa inkqubela-teknoloji. Uxinezeleko phakathi kokhuseleko lwesizwe nenkululeko yabemi luhlala luyindawo engundoqo yokuhlola kunye nolungelelanisa.

Isiphelo: Ukubaluleka Okuhlala Kukho Korhulumente Olungeleleneyo

Inkqubo yokuhlola nokulinganisela ingaphezulu kunento engokwembali; sisakhiwo esiphilayo esiye sahambelana neenguqu zezobupolitika, zentlalo, kunye nobugcisa obungaphezulu kweenkulungwane ezimbini. Injongo yaso .(ukuthintela ukuvela kwamandla anobuzwilakhe, ukukhuthaza uphando, ukukhusela amalungelo abantu, nokuqinisekisa ukuphendulana ngol_ukusetyenziswa kwale mihlanje, njengoko kwakunjalo ngo1787. Nangona le nkqubo isoloko iphazamisa, icotha, kwaye iphantsi koxinzelelo, oluyilwayo kanye ngokwendlela yokuyila. Njengoko uJames Madison wabhala, ukuba abantu bebengazo iingelosi, bekungayi kuba yimfuneko." Ngenxa yokuba bekungenjalo, isakhiwo sokuhlola nokulinganisela nokulinganisela sihlala sihleli sisebenza kakuhle. Ukuqonda imbali yayo, ukwazisa inkcuthutho, nokukhusela ingqibelelo yayo, kungenxa yemisebenzi eyimfuneko kwisizukulwana ngasinye sabemi baseMelika.