Ukuqonda isiseko somthetho esinxulumene nokukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu namalungelo abantu kubalulekile ekukhuseleni abantu abasengozini. Le mfundiso ibumba indlela abantu abanokufuna ngayo okusesikweni kwaye iqinisekisa ukuba oorhulumente bahlala benoxanduva lwezenzo zabo. Ngoxa ulawulo loburhulumente oluzimeleyo ngokwembali lukhuselwe ekwangeni tyala, imigaqo yezomthetho yale mihla iye yazimisela ngokwahlukileyo ezivumela ukuba amalungelo abantu aqhubeke, ukubeka ulungelelwano oluthe ngcembe phakathi kwegunya likarhulumente kunye nenkululeko yabantu ngabanye. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa ukudityaniswa komgangatho ozimeleyo kunye namalungelo abantu, igxininisa kwiingxaki ezingokwasemthethweni namathuba amaqela afuna ukuchanabeka kwizinto ezinokuphembeleka.

Umanyano lweNtloko enguMongami: Imfihlelo

Ukhuseleko loburhulumente yimfundiso esemthethweni ethintela urhulumente ("federal, State, okanye indawo apho) ukuba agwetywe ngaphandle kwemvume yayo. Ukusuka kumthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, apho ukumkani wayengenakumangalelwa kwiinkundla zakhe, lo mgaqo wamkelwa eUnited States ukukhusela imali kawonke-wonke nokuqinisekisa ukuba imisebenzi karhulumente ayiphazanyiswa kukubekwa phantsi kwetyala okungapheliyo. Noko ke, ekuhambeni kwexesha, le mfundiso iye yathotyelwa ngokomthetho nangezigqibo ezigwebo eziwayo eziwayo abemi abawamkela amalungelo okubeka urhulumente etyala ngenxa yokona.

EUnited States, ukhuseleko oluzimeleyo lusebenza kumanqanaba orhulumente norhulumente, ngamnye olawulwa yimithetho eyahlukeneyo kunye namalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko. Le ngcamango ayipheleli; ingakumbi xa iBhunga okanye iindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente zithintela ukuthintelwa. Kubemi abambalwa ababuthathaka, abantu abaneziphene, abantu abangenaziphene, nabanye abangenayo imilinganiselo ephantsi babalulekile ekufumaneni unyango localucalulo okanye ukunganakwa.

I-Immonite yoLawulo loManyano kunye noMthetho weQela

Kumgangatho wesizwe, iFTCA] I-Federal Tort Act (FTCA) inika umlinganiselo omsikelweyo wokuthintelwa kwezoburhulumente kwimiqathango yezoburhulumente esuka kwizenzo zentengiso okanye eziphosakeleyo zabasebenzi bezwe abasebenza ngexesha lomsebenzi wabo. IFTCA ivumela abantu ukuba banyuke eUnited States ngenxa yemali emo enokuba umntu wabucala ufaneleke phantsi komthetho. Noko ke, umthetho uqulethe izinto ezininzi ezingeyo, kuquka ukukhutshwa kwe-ejongwe (umz., ukuhlasela, ibhetri) kunye nezibhengezo zemisebenzi ye-mali ebandakanya inkqubo yomgwebo.

Kubemi ababuthathaka, umsebenzi wobuchule we-FTCA unokuba ngumqobo obalulekileyo. Umzekelo, ukuba umbutho worhulumente ungakwazi ukunyanzelisa imimiselo yokhuseleko kwiprojekthi yezindlu ezifumana imali ephantsi, isigqibo sokunganyanzeliswa kungathathwa njengomsebenzi ofanelekileyo, wokuzinzisa uvuselelo. Iinkundla zitolike ngokumxinwa oku kunxaxhino oku kubandakanya ukuphulwa komgaqo-siseko, kodwa indlela ihlala igcwele yimiqobo.

Ukungahambelani koMlawuli weSizwe noMphetho-nkqubo weshumi elinesine

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwesizwe lusekelwe kuMgaqo-siseko weshumi elinesine weSigqibo se-U.S., othintela iinkundla zikarhulumente ukuba zivike iisuti ngokuchasene nesizwe somnye urhulumente okanye ngabemi baso. Oku kuthintela kudlulela kumaqumrhu karhulumente nakumagunya xa esebenza ngokusemthethweni. Sekunjalo, iNkundla ePhakamileyo iye yaqonda ukuba ukuthintelwa komzimba kungabangelwa kukuvuma iintlawulo, kwaye iBhunga lingaluthintela ukhuseleko lorhulumente xa lisebenzisa amalungelo phantsi koLawulo lwe-1459th Demendment.

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo, ezifana ne USiminole Friest of Florida v. Florida (1996), inamandla alinganiselweyo eKhomishini yokuphelisa ukukhusela ulawulo lombuso phantsi kweGatya I, kodwa iNkundla ixhase ukukhutshwa phantsi kweCandelo 5 loMmiselo weMpathiso-Mpanzi we-14. Oku kuthetha ukuba imimiselo yamalungelo abantu ewiswe phantsi kwe-145t Demetrition (9).EnjengeSihlomelo VI se-Siqu soMthetho we-Rhulumente wamashumi mabini kunye neSibini se-A. UMthetho we-A.

Iinqobo Neengcungcutheko Zolawulo

Ngapha koko kusetyenziswa kwemithetho, iinkundla ziphuhlise umahluko owenziwe ngabagwebi kukhuseleko lomthetho. Eyona ibalulekileyo yile imfundiso ekwinxenye ye-Young, evumela iisuti nxamnye namagosa karhulumente (kumandla awo asemthethweni) ukwenzela ukukhululeka okungenayo ukuphelisa ukwaphulwa okuqhubekayo komthetho-rhulumente. Le mfundiso ayivumeli imali yophulo nxamnye norhulumente kodwa ivumela iinkundla ukuba ziyalele amagosa ukuba athobelene nemithetho-siseko kunye neemiyalelo ye-state. Kubemi abachanekileyo, ukukwazi ukufumana izikolo zokususa imvume ze-egegractive, ukunikezela iinkonzo ezifikelelekayo zikawonke-wonke, okanye ukuyeka ukusetyenziswa kwe-CD-opluntluntluntlu.

Ukongezelela, amatyala angayahlula ngokuzithandela imigaqo-nkqubo yokuzikhusela ngokwayo ngokusemthethweni okanye ngokwamkela imali karhulumente efuna ukuthotyelwa kwemithetho yamalungelo abantu. Urhulumente omninzi othelekisa i-tort wenza okufanayo kwi-FTCA, evumela iisuti zifakwe kwimida ethile. Noko ke, aba bahluzi badla ngokufaka imposiso yomonakalo baze bafake isaziso esifutshane samaxesha okungangeni macala, nto leyo enokuphazamisa ii-pesenti ezinolwazi olulinganiselweyo olusemthethweni.

Ukukhuselwa Kwamalungelo Abantu Abanokuchanabeka

Imithetho yamalungelo abantu ikhusela abantu ekucalucalulweni kwaye iqinisekisa ukuba bafumana amathuba alinganayo emisebenzi, ezindlu, imfundo, kunye neenkonzo zikawonke-wonke.

Imithetho engundoqo yamalungelo oluntu

Umthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964: IsiHloko seSiVI solwalela ucalulo ngesiseko sohlanga, umbala, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe kwiinkqubo ezifumana uncedo lwemali karhulumente. Isihloko VII silwalela ucalulo lwemisebenzi olusekelwe kuhlanga, imibala, unqulo, isini, okanye imvelaphi yesizwe. La malungiselelo aye asetyenziswa ukucel'ucel' umngeni, imali engalinganiyo, kunye nekhethelo lomsebenzi.

AmaMelika anomthetho wesiphene (ADA): owagunyaziswa ngo1990, iADA iyalwalela ucalucalulo nxamnye nabantu abakhubazekileyo emsebenzini (isiHloko I), iinkonzo zikawonke-wonke (isiHloko II), iindawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke (Isihloko III), kunye ne-tetransfermending (INTH IV). Isihloko II sibaluleke ngokukhethekileyo kubemi abachaphazelekayo kuba sisebenza kurhulumente nakwimibutho karhulumente wasekuhlaleni, kuba sifuna ukuba banikezele iinkqubo, iinkonzo, kunye nezixhobo ezifikelelekayo.

UMthetho weFair Home Act: Lo mthetho uyalwalela ucalucalulo kwizindlu ezisekelwe kuhlanga, umbala, unqulo, isini, imvelaphi yesizwe, ubugxwayiba, okanye ukukhubazeka. Igubungela ukuqeshwa, ukuthengiswa, kunye nezenzo zokubolekisa kwaye iye yaba luncedo ekulweni ukubomvu kunye neminye imisebenzi yokukhupha izigalo.

Umthetho wobuLuntu ka-66: Icandelo 2 kunye nesihlanu sale senzo sikhusela ekukhetheni ucalulo lobuhlanga, kuquka utshintsho oluphindaphindiweyo olunciphisa amandla okuvota amancinane. Izigqibo zeNkundla Ephakamileyo yangoku iNkundla yaNgoku ziye zayenza buthathaka iCandelo 5 lemfuneko yokuzimela kwangaphambili, kodwa icandelo 2 lisesona sixhobo sinamandla sokuguqula.

Abemi Abaneendleko Ezininzi

Abemi abangakwaziyo ukumelana nolwaphulo-mthetho ngamaqela ajongene nomngcipheko ophezulu wocalucalulo okanye wokwenzakala ngenxa yokungalingani ngokwembali okanye ukubekwa phantsi kwentlalo. Ezi ziquka abantu abambalwa ngokweentlalo, abaneziphene, abalupheleyo, abantwana, iintsapho ezifumana imali ephantsi, abantu ngabanye, nabantu abangawaqondi kakuhle amaNgesi. Ngokufuthi la maqela ajonga ukuba afuna ukukhuselwa ngokukhethekileyo ngenxa yokuba engenawo amandla ezobupolitika okanye ubuncwane bokukhusela amalungelo awo kwimijelo eqhelekileyo.

Ngokomzekelo, phantsi kwe-ADA, umntu oneziphene uthathwa njengelungu leklasi ekhuselweyo. Umthetho uyalela ukuba kuhlale abantu abafanelekileyo emsebenzini nakwiinkonzo zikawonke-wonke, kodwa ukunyanzelisa kuxhomekeke kubuchule bomntu bokuqalisa isikhalazo ngeSebe leJaji okanye ngokuyibhala ityala labucala. Ngokufanayo, phantsi koMthetho wamaLungelo oMsebenzi, amatyala kufuneka abonise injongo yokukhupha idekhrasi kwiimeko ezininzi, nto leyo enokuba nzima xa ikhethe licaciswe okanye lisemgaqweni.

Umatshini Wokunyanzelisa

Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abemi lunyanzeliswa ngeendlela ezininzi: ukumangalelwa kwabucala, izikhalazo zolawulo, uphando lweSebe leJaji (DOJ), kunye nokubekwa ityala. I-DOJ’s Civil Rights Division inegunya lokumangalela urhulumente kunye noorhulumente basekuhlaleni ngenxa yemigaqo yocalucalulo, njengakukuziphatha kakubi kwamapolisa okanye ukucalucalulwa kwezindlu. Abantu ngabanye bangamangalela umonakalo okanye ukumangalelwa phantsi kwemithetho yoluntu yokukhululeka yamalungelo abantu, ngokufuthi besebenzisa 422.SC.

ICandelo 1983 lisisixhobo esinamandla kuba lidala unobangela wesenzo nxamnye naye nawuphi na umntu, othi, phantsi kombala womthetho karhulumente, ahluthe omnye amalungelo karhulumente. Noko ke, ulawulo oluphezulu lokhuseleko lorhulumente lukhusela oorhulumente kumasuti eCandelo 1983 ukuze bonakaliswe. Oorhulumente basekuhlaleni (iii-antificity) abangomajoni akhuselekileyo phantsi kweCandelo 1983, kodwa basenokuqhubeka bewakhusela amagosa abo, nto leyo ebakhusela ukuba ilungelo lingamiselwanga ngokucacileyo ngexesha lokwaphulwa.

Iingxaki Ekunyanzelweni

Nangona kukho ukhuseleko olungqongqo olusemthethweni ephepheni, abantu abachaphazelekayo bajamelana nemiqobo ephawulekayo yokunyanzela amalungelo abo asekuhlaleni.

Izithintelo Zokufikelela Okusesikweni

[[NTLT: 0] Abantu abaninzi abanobungozi obusemthethweni: Abaninzi ababuthathaka abanako ukufikelela kwigqwetha. Iimeko zamalungelo oluntu zintsonkothile kwaye zisoloko zifuna amangqina olwazi, ukufunyanwa okugqithisileyo, kunye nezibongozo. Imibutho yoncedo olusemthethweni kunye neenkonzo ze-probono, kodwa baphantsi kwaye abanako ukuhlangabezana nemfuno eyongameleyo. Ngokutsho kwe Umanyano lwamaMelika Bar[, umgangatho ophantsi ofumana amaMelika afumana uncedo olungafanelekanga okanye akukho ncedo lwasemthethweni lwawo ngaphezu kwama-80% eemfuno zawo ezisemthethweni.

Ulwimi kunye neNkcubeko IBarriers:[ Abantu abanobuchule obulinganiselweyo bamaNgesi basenokuzama ukuqonda amalungelo abo, ukuzalisa iifomu, okanye ukunxibelelana namagqwetha neenkundla. Ngelixesha amasebe agunyazileyo enikezela ngeenkonzo zoguqulelo phantsi koLungiselelo olunoLawulo oluPhezulu 13166, ukuzalisekiswa kuyatshintsha.

[[NTL: 0] Imithetho eqingqiweyo yokusikelwa umda kunye neemfuno zokuphawula: Intengiso ezininzi zamalungelo abantu zinexesha elifutshane lokucwangcisa (ngokufuthi iintsuku ezili-180 ukufaka isikhalazo solawulo kwiKhomishoni ye-Octive Opportunity (EOC) ngenxa yocalucalulo lwemisebenzi. Abemi abakwazi malunga nale miqathango okanye bangalibazisa ukufuna uncedo.

I-mmmony eqinisekisiweyo: Le mfundiso ikhusela amagosa karhulumente ekumangalelweni ngenxa yomonakalo ngaphandle kokuba ihambo yawo ibekwe phantsi ngokucacileyo kumthetho okanye kumalungelo omgaqo-siseko. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngokuthi ukukhusela okufanelekileyo kuvumela amagosa ukuba aphephe ukuphendula nokuba enzakalise abemi ababuthathaka, ngenxa yokuba umgangatho "opheleleyo" utolikwa ngokucuthayo. Inkundla ePhakamileyo iyazi ukuba le mfundiso inendima ekukhuseleni amagosa kwiimpahla ezingentongalulekanga kodwa ayiwalungisi.

Indima yoncedo lomthetho kunye neenkonzo zeProBono

Imibutho engangeni ngeniso efana ne-ACLU, iNaACP Legal Defense Fund, kunye neNaACP Amalungelo oMgangatho aseKhalifoniya adaliweyo inikela umelo olubalulekileyo ekuchaphazeleni kweziphumo. Isoloko izisa izenzo zodidi ezinokuba nempembelelo kumawaka abantu. Noko ke, le mibutho ibeka izicwangciso ezicwangcisiweyo ezimiselwe ngokwemigaqo-mthetho, ishiye izikhalazo ezininzi ezingaconjululwanga. Iinkqubo ze-project budom kwimisti enkulu yomthetho zikwanikela, kodwa ukubonelela iinkonzo zesisa ngokukhululekile ezisemthethweni kuhlala kungaphantsi lee mfuneko.

Ulawulo lwendlela yokusebenza

Ngaphandle kwamatyala ngamanye, ucalucalulo olusemngciphekweni osemthethweni oluphakathi kwenkqubo engokwahlulelwano lobuhlanga kukhetho lwabachopheli-tyala, isalelo, kunye nepolisi (ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo abantu). Iinkundla ziyazi ukuba ezi migaqo-nkqubo zikho kodwa zisoloko zithandabuza ukunyanzela abantu ababuthathaka ukuba bafumane amayeza. Kubemi abanokuphumelela, esona sicwangciso sisebenzayo sidityaniswa nokudityaniswa kwemithetho kunye nokulungelelaniswa kolungiso olubanzi lotshintsho.

Ukulungelelanisa Umanyano loMlawuli naMalungelo

Uxanduva phakathi kokhuseleko oluzimeleyo namalungelo abantu lusembindini wamatyala amaninzi abalulekileyo enkundleni. Ngoxa ukhuseleko lomzimba ozimeleyo lukhusela iibhokisi zikawonke-wonke, imithetho yamalungelo abantu imela ukulingana okungenakuqondwa ngokupheleleyo ukuba oorhulumente abagonyelwe ekuphembeleleni. Iinkundla ziye zaluvumela olu xinezeleko ngokuvumela izinto ezithile ziqhubeke ngoxa zithintela abanye.

Umonakalo

Njengoko kuphawuliwe, imfundiso ye- ex e Young ilungiselela indlela yokufuna isiqabu ngokuchasene namagosa karhulumente. Oku kungumsebenzi onzima kubemi ababuthathaka kuba ivumela iinkundla ukuba zilungelelanise utshintsho kwisimilo sikarhulumente. Ngokufana nokuphucula iimeko zentolongo, ukunika abatoliki bolwimi lwezandla kwizibhedlele zikawonke-wonke, okanye ukunqanda uqheliselo lokukhupha isikhalazo. Noko ke, ukukhulula akuwahlawuleli amaxhoba angaphambili, kwaye ukunyanzelisa imimiselo entlukwano kusenokuba nzima.

Ngokwahlukileyo koko, umonakalo wemali awufumaneki ngokuqhelekileyo nxamnye noorhulumente ngaphandle kokuba ukhuseleko luye lwapheliswa. Abasebenzi be-FTCA, i-FTCA banika isicombululo esisikelwe umda, kodwa i-capy kunye nezo zishicilelweyo zisoloko zishiya ii-feartsi zingahlawulwa. Amagosa karhulumente asekuhlaleni, iCandelo lowe1901, likho iziphumo ukuba igosa elisemthethweni ligwetyelwe kumandla omntu ngamnye, kodwa ukulondolozwa okufanelekileyo kunokuthintela ukuchachachacha ukuba ilungelo lasekunene alimiselwanga ngokucacileyo.

Impembelelo Kubemi Abaneendleko Ezininzi

Ukusetyenziswa kwenkundla yokhuseleko lwendalo kunye namalungelo abemi kuneziphumo zokwenene. Umzekelo, Brown v. Plata (2011], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa umyalelo ofuna iKhalifoniya ukuba inciphise inani labemi bayo baselugcinweni ngenxa yeemeko ezingekho mthethweni zonyango lwasezamayeza. Urhulumente waphikisana nokhuseleko lobuzwilane, kodwa iNkundla yalenza ukuba ukukhululeka okukhoyo kufanelekile phantsi kweNtolongo yeNguquko kunye neSinyuko se-8h Amend. Isigqibo sanyanzelisa iinguqu eziphawulekayo, ezinceda amakhulu amawaka amabanjwa angenazisulu.

Ngokuchaseneyo, kwi City of Cleburne, Texas v. Cleburne Living Center (1985), iNkundla yawisa umthetho owehlayo owehlulayo kwiqela lamakhaya abantu abaneziphene zengqondo, kodwa abasebenzi kwafuneka balwe ngemiqobo ephakathi kuquka ukukhusela ukukhusela ukhuseleko lwamagosa asekuhlaleni. Umzekelo ubonisa ukuba kwanempumelelo yokhuphiso lobomi bunguvimba-mentente kunye nokuthomala kwentliziyo.

Uphuhliso Lwangoku Neenkcubeko Zexesha Elizayo

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo zakutshanje ziye zandisa kwaye zawanciphisa onke amalungelo abantu ekukhuseleni ulawulo oluphezulu. Allen v. Milligan [2023], iNkundla yaxhasa iCandelo 2 lamaLungelo eVoting Act, ifuna ukuba uAlabama aphinde akhuphe imaphu yayo equke isithili sesibini sobugqeba boMdatha. Urhulumente waqinisekisa ukuba ukhuseleko lokhuseleko lwesizwe lugunyaziwe ngokusemthethweni phantsi koMmiselo we-145. Esi sigqibo siqinisa umgaqo wokuba amalungelo abantu anokuwoyisa ukulondolozwa xa enyanzelisa iziqinisekiso zomthetho-siseko.

Ngeli xesha, iNkundla iye yanciphisa umlinganiselo weCandelo lowe-1998 lithetha kumatyala afana Tores v. Madrid (2021], eyaqwalasela ukuba ukuxhuzula kwenzeka naxa amagosa esebenzisa amandla kodwa engakwazi ukuthintela umntu. Ngelixesha iNkundla yandisa ingcaciso yokuphazanyiswa kwenjongo yokuzinzisa kwesine, ikwabonisa ukuba ulumkiso ekukhuliseni amalungelo karhulumente ngokuchasene namagosa karhulumente.

Xa ujonga phambili, imigudu yowiso-mthetho efana ne-George Floyd Justice kuMthetho wePolistical Act ejolise ekulungiseni ukukhuselwa komzimba okufanelekileyo nokuqinisa ukuphendulela ityala lokunganyaniseki kwamapolisa. Ukuba igqithiswa, imithetho enjalo ingaluchaphazela ngokuthe ngqo ulwahlulo phakathi kokhuseleko lolawulo oluphezulu namalungelo abantu ababuthathaka. Ngaphezu koko, utshintsho lomgangatho karhulumente lubangela izinto ezintsha ezigqitha iimfundiso zokuzikhusela kwimilo-mthetho.

Isiphelo

Iimbono ezisemthethweni ngokukhusela ukhuseleko lwezolawulo oluzimeleyo namalungelo abantu zityhila umzabalazo oqhubekayo wokuqinisekisa okusesikweni kubantu abasengozini. Ngoxa ukukhusela ukulawulwa kolawulo kusesona sikhuselo sobungozi koorhulumente, ukungafani nemfundiso egwebayo kunika amathuba okuphendula. Ngokukhethekileyo, ukusetyenziswa koncedo olungenaziphene nokuhlaziywa phantsi koMphetho-nyaka we-145. Noko ke, imiqobo elawulayo njengeyokukhusela ukunqandwa, ubuncwane obulinganiselweyo obusemthethweni, kunye nemiqobo ephantsi kwemigaqo-mthetho esemthethweni iyaqhubeka isenza siphononosongelwe isithembiso samalungelo abantu. Kuba abameli, indlela engaphambili ibandakanya kungekuphela nje ukuhlazinziswa kwetyala kodwa kwakhona ukupheliswa kwemithetho ebangela ukukhuselwa kwemithetho egqwetha ukhuseleko nokukhuselwa kwebutho elisemgangathweni loluntu. Ngokudibanisa ulawulo olusemthethweni, inkqubo yemfundo yemfundo kawonke wonke, kunye nemfundo yomthetho elungele ukusetyenziswa phantsi komthetho.