Imbono Yamandulo Ngesigwebo Sokufa Nesigwebo Sokwaphula Umthetho

Ingxoxo ngesohlwayo setyala kunye nenkqubo yokugweba ebanzi yezaphuli-mthetho isoloko isekelwe kutoliko lomgaqo-siseko. Phakathi kweyona nkqubo inempembelelo ingumthetho wobukho bendalo , intanda-bulumko enyanzelisayo ukufunda umGaqo-siseko ngokwentsingiselo yawo yantlandlolo ngexesha lokwenza ingqwalaselo. Ingqiqo yokuqala, ukuthembeka kumbhalo oqondwa ngumthetho oqondwayo yisizukulwana esizinzileyo inika ukuzinza, ukuqikelelwa, ukuqikelelwa, kunye nokulawulwa yidemokhrasi. Le mbono ijongela ngendlela abagwebi, abaphengululi, kunye nabacebisi bemithetho ejonge ngayo isigwebo, amalungelo aqhelekileyo, kunye neenkqubo zokulungisa. Ukuqonda kwantlalo kufune ukukhangela ngokusondeleyo kwimbali, uhlaluko-mbhalo, kunye nendaleko lwemfundiso yezomthetho — ngexesha lokuchasana nentelelo lwezinzo yemithetho ye-grali yesiseko se-gracratiki.

Yintoni Ingcamango Yantlandlolo?

Ubuntsusa asiyomfundo yesikolo ye-monolithic; buquka imisonto emininzi. Uguqulelo lokuqala, injongo yokuqala, lufuna ukuqonda oko abalawuli ngokobuqu bakukholelwayo ngelungiselelo lomgaqo-siseko. Namhlanje, umahluko olawulayo yintsingiselo kawonke-wonke [[[FLT:]], exhaswe nguMphathi Anton Scialia kunye nabanye. Le ndlela ibuza ukuba yintoni umntu onengqondo ngexesha lokwenziwa kwemithetho-ratting ozakuqonda ukuba uthetha. Ulwimi loqobo luquka [[[FLT:] iindlela zobuhlanga] zantlalo, ezihlolisisa indlela yokwasemthethweni noluguqulela ngayo ulwimi olukwixesha lokusekwa. Zonke iimfundiso ezithiweyo zinokungadibani nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi na indlela yokuzichaza. Zonke iimvolukelo ezimele ziqonde ngokweezo ezimele zisetyenziswe ngabagwebi: ukugqe: ukugqelelana kwabo.

Imvelaphi yobufundisi boqobo ikwinkulungwane yamashumi amabini njengentsabelo kumalungelo apheleleyo eKrorn kunye neBurger Courts. Abaphengululi abafana noRobert Bork, Raoul Berger, kunye noRandy Barnett noGary Lawson bachaza ngokuchanekileyo iingcamango ezingezona zendalo. Ngoxa ubuBhosa bokuqala buye baphembelela iNkundla ePhakamileyo yeNkundla ePhakamileyo (] I-Divolute of Columbia v. , 2008, kunye neKlassistemss Claus ([FLT:]] United States v[FLT], 1995, ukusetyenziswa kwayo kwisigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho.)

Unqulo Lwamandulo Nohlaziyo Lwesibhozo

I-Sendreh Amendment ivakalisa oku: “Ibheyile yembali ayizukufunwa, okanye intlawulo egqithisileyo, okanye isohlwayo esigqithisileyo nesothutho esingaqhelekanga esibekiweyo.” Intsingiselo ye- “creast kunye nengaqhelekanga” yayimiselwe ngexesha lokubekwa (1791 ngexesha lokunikezelwa kweBhili yamalungelo abantu). Inkcazo engundoqo yezobuko kukuba isohlwayo selixanduva yayisetyenziswa kwaye yamkelekaliswa ngokungaqhelekanga. [[FLT] ngexesha lokusekwa kwendalo. Izenzo zokubulala zasuswa zasuswa ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho, ukuvukela, ukurson, kwana — kwezinye iindawo — ubusela okanye ubuqhezu. I-Framers ngokwayo yayiphikisana nokusetyenziswa kweendlela ezithile zokubulala (umphatho., ukuzobamba, ukutsha nokutshisa kwe-othusa kwe-asethi) kodwa impikiswano yangaphambili ayithanga. Ngoko ke, imbono engathi i-orrug." i-og." i-“irver

Imbali

Iziqwenga eziliqela zobungqina zixhasa oku kufundwa kokuqala. Okokuqala, iNgqungquthela Yokuqala, eyacebisa ukuba iBhili yamaLungelo, ikwagunyaze isohlwayo sentambo yesigwebo esithile sikarhulumente kuMthetho weCrimes wewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi asixhenxe. Okwesibini, imithetho-siseko kunye nemimiselo yexesha lokubulawa ngokulinganayo kwiimeko ezinzulu. Okwesithathu, ibinzana elithi “i-cruuel nengaqhelekanga” yaboleka kwiBhili yamaLungelo yaseNgilani ka-1689, apho yalela isohlwayo engagunyaziswanga ngumthetho okanye ityala — hayi ukupheliswa kokubulawa. Ngalo ndlela i-Dlutlurtyhistristism igqiba kwelokuba ukupheliswa kwemidaliyesibhozo kwakucekwa ngendlela yobuqaba (njengokutshisa okanye ukuzoba okanye ukuzoba nekota) kunye nesohlwayo, yaye ingasiphelisa isigwebo somlinganiselo ngamnye.

“ Imilinganiselo Esekelwe Kukuchanamba” Imfundiso

Abaqulunqi baxhasa inkcaso eqatha kwi isebenzisa imilinganiselo ejikelezayo yesidima uvavanyo lokuba iNkundla Ephakamileyo yamkelwe Trop v. Dulles [1958]] kwaye yasebenzisa kwiimeko zesigwebo sentambo njenge [[FLT:] Firman]. Georgia[[[FLT] v]][5][7][7][5] Ngokubhekiselele kulo vavanyo, intsingiselo yendlela eyi-8] njengoko imilinganiselo yokuziphatha yebutho ikhula. IJastiliate edumileyo yayigculelwa njenge “imfa yetyala lomthetho. [indlela engekho mvume epheleleyo yokufa kuyo.] [FLT][200] [5][5]

Imbono Yamandulo Ngesigwebo Sokufa

Ekubeni kunikwe ubungqina obungokwembali, abaphengululi abaninzi abaphambili nabagwebi bamkela ukufaneleka komGaqo-siseko kwesohlwayo sentambo. Noko ke, abaxhasi boqobo abakuxhasi ukusebenzisa kwaso kuzo zonke iimeko. Abathathi-nxaxheba bayahlula phakathi kwentsingiselo yesohlwayo ekwisiseko [[[FLT: 0]] kunye nemigaqo-mthetho ekhuselayo nenqabileyo nemigaqo-siseko] efunekayo ukuhlangabezana nentsingiselo yokuqala yenkqubo nekhuselwa ngokulinganayo. Impikiswano engundoqo ilula: ngenxa yokuba umbhalo woMgaqo-siseko nokuqonda kwasekuqaleni akukwaleli ukubulawa ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho olunzulu, amasebe ezobupolitika — iiBhunga kunye nemithetho yezomthetho — igunya lokuyigunya, kuphela ukuvumelana nokulingana kwemilinganiselo eemfanelo zikaBill.

Iminikelo KaJaji Scalia

Imbono yeJaji Scalia inikela uvumo olucacileyo lweNkundla yokuqiqa kwasekuqaleni ngesohlwayo sokufa. Kansas v. Marsh (2006), wabhala ukuba iSeth Amendment “ayisileli isigwebo sokufa kubabulali” kwaye igxeke iNkundla ngokuphatha njengemeko “yokuziphatha okungathandekiyo kwejaji." Kwi- i-Ring v. Arizona[FLT:] [2002] [2002], iyavuma ukuba umHluleki weSithandathu weSigwebo ufuna umgwebi ukuba afumane izinto ezibangela ukuba ummangalelwa afanele ukufa — ekwandisiweyo kwimo ekwandisiweyo yemali yemali ekwandisiweyo. [FLT.2]]

Ubulungisa UThomas Nokuziphendukela Kwemvelo

UClarence Thomas unikezele ingcaciso enzulu yembali. Graham v. Florida [2010], waphikisa ekubeni abaninzi babebambene nokuba ubomi ngaphandle kwemvume yabatsha kwimiba engaphelelanga ye-homicide bungalawulekiyo. UThomas waphikisa ukuba kuphela kwesohlwayo “siso sobugrayo nengaqhelekanga” zeziya ziqwalaselwe ngo1791. Ekubeni abantwana abaphuli-mthetho babegwetyelwa (nawo nokuvalelwa) ngelo xesha, amandla karhulumente okubeka ubomi ngaphandle kwe-parle. Ngokunjalo, [FLT.2] Blucklev. V[FTL:9], kwaye u-Goleth prograclated trans (uthrence) abhala u-Goletton (ell) ukuvavanywa kwemiqatha yendlela) ukuday embali (ethenti) athe ukufumanisa soluthe , ngokutsho ukunciphisa iziphumo.

Inkxaso Ngetyala Lokufa Elivela KuLens Wamandulo

  • [[UMTHETHO:0] Ukuqhubekeka okuthe ngqo: iziphumo bezisoloko zingumsebenzi ozinzileyo wesijunga saseMelika ukususela phambi komGaqo-siseko. Abalawuli benqanawa abasayi kukubona ukupheliswa njengemfuneko yomGaqo-siseko.
  • UbuFederali: IsiHlaliso sesibhozo sisebenza kumazwe ngakuMphetho-mda weshumi elinesine, kodwa abaququzeleli basoloko bephikisa ukuba imfundiso yokudibanisa imele ilinganiselwe. Izazi ezininzi zoqobo zikholelwa ukuba zithi i-odoli i-oyile i-oyile i-odoli nesohlwayo zinokuhlala zivulekile ukuba zichaze ulwaphulo-mthetho kunye nezohlwayo ngaphandle kokuba ilungelo elithile lichasiwe ngokucacileyo.
  • Umbhalo:[ ibinzana elithi “i-cruust nengaqhelekanga” aliqulathanga amagama afana no-“kujikeleza” okanye“ngoku. Izazi zoqobo ziyayikhaba ityala lemiqathango emitsha.
  • Ukuthatha ityala ngedemokhrasi: Ukuba abantu bafuna ukuphelisa isohlwayo sentambo, bangaphembelela abalawuli babo. Iinkundla azifanele zifungxelele inkqubo yezopolitiko.

Inkcaso Evela Kwezinye Iimbono

Iimbono zoqobo zijongene nocelomngeni olunamandla kubafundi nabagwebi abangathanga mvukelo. “Oomntu ohlalayo wenkampu yezomgaqo-siseko” uphikisa ngelithi abaxhasi bomGaqo-siseko ngokwabo balindele ukuba umGaqo-siseko uchazwe ngokubhekiselele kwiimeko ezitshintshayo. Abanye babhekisela kwingqinelano ye-Heighth Amendmentment ebhekisa ku-“engabonakaliyo”: isohlwayo singaqhelekanga njengoko ibutho labantu lingayishiya ngokuchasene nokusesikweni. Abanye babalaseka ubungozi bokubulala abantu abamsulwa — inkxalabo encinane kwinkulungwane ye-18 kodwa ngoku ixhaswe yi-DNARCFON ifunda ingakumbi, abagxekwayo kwizifundo ezithiweyo. [2] Ngaphezu koko, abagxeki-enkuphelo luthi ngokulula, olusuka kwintelelo olungokwahlukileyo kwiNxelensi yoluntu, olusuka kwiNxeko yoluvo oluqhelekileyo, oluthi oluthiyo oluthiyo oluthiyo oluthiyo oluthiyo, oluthiyokunye oluthiyo oluthiyo, oluthiyokunye oluthi

Imbono Yamandulo Ngokusesikweni Kwezaphuli - mthetho Ngaphezu Kwesigwebo Sokufa

Ukusetyenziswa kwayo kwinkqubo yolwaphulo - mthetho, amalungelo ommangalelwa, norhulumente kuye kwavelisa umbono owahlukileyo wokusesikweni — lowo uxabisa ukuqonda okungokwembali okufanelekileyo, ukuchotshelwa kwetyala, namandla amapolisa karhulumente.

INkqubo eCwangcisiweyo neSibheno saMalungelo

Ingcaciso zoqobo zigxininisa ukuba i-Grade Processor Claus yeNkqutyana neyeshumi elinesine yoHlanu uMmiselo kufuneka itolikwe iliso kwintsingiselo yayo yasekuqaleni. Oku kusoloko kukhokelela kwinqanaba elimxinwa yenkqubo efunekayo — ingcamango yokuba u-Clause ukhusela amalungelo athile asisiseko angachazwanga kumGaqo-siseko. Kubamangalelwa, oku kuthetha ukuba amalungelo eejaji adwe (ukuvavanywa, ukuxambulisana, icebiso, njalo- njalo.) ngawona malungelo aphambili athandabuzaniswayo amatyala afana “nokwenza amatyala abekwe phambili” njengomyalelo womthetho omthetho (akuwo okubhaliweyo) okanye umthetho ongekhoyo kumbhalo). Umthetho osemthethweni awufuni polisi (kwakhona nako) kodwa umgaqo olungileyo. [[FLY:] [127] [12] kunye nezinga) kunye nezigwebo ezithi ezingo zomthetho eziqhelekileyo, azizange zichase ukuba zichase umthetho osemthethweni ukuba ulungelelazwe ngokufanelekileyo ukuba umgaqo olungileyo ulungelelanduku, ulungelelwayo. kodwa

Uhlaziyo Lwesine: Ukufuna Intsingiselo Yantlandlolo

Kummandla wokukhangela nokuxhuzula, i-Optional ithe yabangela iimpikiswano ngentsingiselo “yobugqwetha.” Imbono yabaninzi ye-Scalia Kyllo v. United States [2001] (ithetha ukuba ukusebenzisa umfanekiso oshushu osuka kwikhaya kwakukukukhangela kuba kwakusikroba ngenxa yokuba kwakuphazamisana nabantu kwindawo ekude beyiqwalaselwe ngasese. [[FLT:]]][FLT]] United States v. Jones[FLT][3]], Scalia wabhala iNkufumana iNkukhandlela ye-GPS ukuya kwinqwelo - mafutha yayiyimposiso emelwayo ngokomzimba. Oku kunokuthi kungenelele kuyo, “ukukhangela phantsi kwepropati. Ngokunjalo, ukukhangela okulula kwe-othe-embaxere.[5]

Amalungelo Ombhiyozo Nongquzulwano luka-Claus

Abaqulunqi benziwe basebenzise inkxaso ekuvuseleleni iBhassion Claus. Uluvo lweJaji Scalia . Washington [2004]) endaweni yovavanyo olungaphambili oluqwalaselweyo ngohlobo lwembali: iingxelo ezingqina ezingekhoyo zamangqina azinakwenzeka ngaphandle kokuba ummangalelwa ube nethuba lokunqamleza ngokunqamleza. Esi sigqibo satshintshwa ngokuphawulekayo ukuvavanywa kwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho kwaye sathethelelwa ngokubhekiselele ekusunguleni kwe-inkxproxhea. Ngokufanayo, ilungelo lokuvavanywa kwe-jaji phantsi kweSithandathu IsiHlulo soMgqomo-mva-mva-mva-mvandezi. [[FLT] iNT] iNkuphetho yesombululo i-sombululo sifumaniswe yi-sombululo yesigwebo. [2]

Ucelomngeni Lwangoku: Ukwahlukahlukana Kwabantu Beentlanga

Ubuntsundu abuthethi ngezona mbambano zicinezelayo kwisigwebo sanamhlanje solwaphulo-mthetho. Ukubanjwa kwemingxuma — i-United States inelona qondo liphezulu lokuvalelwa ematyaleni kwihlabathi elihambele phambili — kuphakamisa imibuzo malunga nokulungelelana komthetho wezaphuli-mthetho wesizwe. Abaphengululi besithethe njengoRandy Barnett abaxhasayo “amandla avuselekileyo”, besithi imithetho emininzi yemichiza kunye nemipu ingaphaya kwegunya leBhunga lomgaqo-siseko. Ngaphantsi komgaqo-siseko wenkcantengiso Claske, umzekelo, iBhunga lomthetho-siseko inokulawula kuphela iPhondo ye-interlitest statenti — hayi nje kwimisebenzi ephinda isetyenziswe njengeziyobisi. Noko ke, amaxwebhu aya kuhlala amandla okulawula ulwaphulo-mthetho, nto leyo enokuthi ichaphazele amanani ee.

Uhlanga Nobuhlanga

Ukwahluka kobuhlanga ekubambeni, ekugwetyweni, nasekubulaweni kusoloko kubalaseliswa ngabagxeki benkqubo yobulungisa. Abaxhasi boqobo bayavuma ukuba iSinyuselo soMlinganiselo weshumi elinesine sokwandiswa kuka-Claus saqondwa ekuqaleni ukuthiyalela ukwahlulwa okucacileyo kobuhlanga, kodwa bahlukene ngokuthi ngaba kuyahlanganisa “iziphumo ezididayo”. IJaji Thomas, i-Grate v. i-Bollinger [[FLT]] [2003] kunye nezinye iimeko, iphikisa ukuba intsingiselo yokuqala yoKhuselo olulinganayo ingumthetho ingumgaqo womgaqo womgaqo [[FLT] othenjiweyo] uk'uthelo olumfafafayo [[FLT] olungaluthiyo olungenayo, imbono yokuba i-edenti yohlanga lungachasane, ngokokungamela okunganyelwa kwemithetho yezo yezo yezongalo yezo yezo yezongalamfastiliti, ingqina ebonakalisayo ingqina ingqina

Ulwandiso

Imbono yokuqala engokulungelelana kobuhlanga intlupheko. ISinyuko sesibhozo siyalela “iinkokhelo zemali” kunye“ nesohlwayo esingaqhelekanga,” kodwa abaqulunqi bayaphikisana ukuba kufuneka ulwahlulo olungqongqo phakathi kolwaphulo-mthetho nesohlwayo kumatyala angangoma-76acastitali. Iisigqibo sakutshanje seNkundla ePhakamileyo [Graham v. Florida kunye [[FLT]] kunye [FLT]] kunye nolwahlulo olukhoyo. [FLT] [FLT] [25] [20] [20] — ezithelekisa ubomi obungaphindiweyo ngaphandle kwe-parrensities. Ngokuchasene nokungaphangaleleka kobuninzi, iMithelela imbono eninzi, ngaphandle kovavanyo oluqhelekileyo, imbono oluthe ngaphaya kobuninzi.

Ugcino lwakuqala

  • Furman v. Georgia (1972]: INkundla ePhakamileyo yavakalisa isohlwayo sokufa njengangoko iphumeza ukungahlangani (564). IJaji William Brennan noThir Marshall olungileyo yayiphikisayo imilinganiselo ejikayo; uMgwebi Scalia kamva wayezayigxeka isiphumo njengengeyoyantla. Abaguquleli besithethe badla ngokujonga u-Fram njengenghende.
  • [[NTLALA:0][FLT]Greg v. Georgia [6] INkundla yaxhasa ukukhokelwa kwe- ­ . Inkundla iphinde isohlwayo segosa. Uluvo lweJaji Stewart lwagxininisa ukuba isohlwayo sokufa asisiso isokungahlangani siseko sobuzwe — iziphumo zenkxaso, nangona benokuvumela ukuxokelelwa kunokuyekelela kuhlalutyo olunyulu.
  • [FLT]-'i-Ring v. Arizona (2002]: Inkundla yacela ukuba iijaji zifumane oothunywashe abaququzeleli. IJaji Scalia ivume, yenza impikiswano yoqobo esekelwe kwiSithandathu IsiHlaziselo. Le meko ibonisa indlela i-Byristism enokuthi ikhusele ngayo amalungelo abamangalelwayo.
  • Bucklew v. Precythe (2029): INkundla yalwa ucelo lokunqamleza. Uluvo lomntu oqeshiweyo olusetyenziswayo ngomqwalaseli wemfuneko yokubonisa enye indlela enokwenzeka kunye nokusetyenziswa kwembali kwiindlela ezithile zokuphumeza.

Isiphelo: Impembelelo Engapheliyo Yokukholelwa Kwizinto Zantlandlolo

UbuGawula-siseko buyaqhubeka bulawula impikiswano ngempikiswano ngokusesikweni kolwaphulo-mthetho eUnited States. Ukunyanzelisa kwayo okubhaliweyo, imbali, kunye nenkqubo yedemokhrasi kunika umlinganiselo onamandla wokusilela kwingcamango “yomGaqo-siseko ophilayo.” Kwisohlwayo sokufa, abenzi bembali boqobo abafumani mqobo wemiqobo, kodwa bakwakhusela intsingiselo ekhoyo ehlonela intsingiselo yantlalo yokuvavanywa kwetyala kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. Ukunyanzeleka kwetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho, ukuqulucaluca ulawulo lolwaphulo-mthetho, ukusungula kwasekuqaleni kunika izixhobo zokulinganisela amandla orhulumente nokukhuselwa kokwakha — kwana njengokuba kuzama ukuthetha imigaqo-mthetho yocaluvo ngaphandle kokubangela intelekelelo. Uxandumiso phakathi kokuyila nokufuna okuguqulwa kwehlabathi luhlala lungalungiswa. Kodwa imbono yokuqala isoloko ibalulekile kwincoko ngencoko eqhubekayo, kwano kwano kwanento ephumayo

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya, bona uHlaziyo lwesibhozo kwiZiko loMgaqo-siseko wesizwe; uluvo loMgwebi Scalia ku Kansas v. Marsh; kunye nohlalutyo lwembali ku John Stanneford, “Intsingiselo Yoqobo ye-'Utus''".