UbuGawulayo buyintanda-bulumko esemthethweni echaza umGaqo-siseko osekelwe ekuqondeni kwasekuqaleni ngexesha owamkelwa ngalo. Le ndlela igxininisa ukubaluleka kokunamathela kwintsingiselo yokuqala yombhalo, kunokuwutolika ngemilinganiselo okanye iimbono zale mihla. Njengendlela yokuchaza imigaqo-siseko, inkcubeko iguqula indlela yokulawula indalo yaseMelika, ukungena kwindawo ebanzi ngomsebenzi wabaphengululi nabagwebi abaphikisayo ukuba ukuthembeka kuxwebhu kufuna imbopheleleko kwintsingiselo yalo emiselweyo kunokuba imvume yokuyila. Intanda-bulumko isebenza kwisiseko sokuba uMgaqo-siseko we--siseko //8] njengesixhobo esigunyazinzileyo, singabaluleki, singawagunyazinzi ukuba ahlaziye amalungiselelo awo ngokokuthanda kwakudala. Lo mbutho uquluko luye lwabangela ukuphikisana okungqongqo komthetho, iinkundla zenkundla zolawulo, kunye nentetho kawonke womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho kawonke wonke owenziwa ngowona mgaqo-wonke-wonke.

Ukuqonda Ubungqina Bokuqala

UbuGawulayo bufuna ukulondoloza injongo yabalayishi bomGaqo-siseko ngokubhekisa ingqalelo kumbhalo nakumongo wembali. Buphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yamalungiselelo omgaqo-siseko kufuneka ihlale ingaguquguquki ngexesha elithile, inika uzinzo kunye nokuxelwa kwangaphambili komthetho. Olu zinzo aluloxabiso nje elingaziwayo; lusekelwe kumthetho ngokwawo, luqinisekisa ukuba abemi nabenzi bomthetho bangayiqonda imida yemithetho-siseko yamandla karhulumente ngaphandle kokoyika ukuba loo mida iza kutshintshana nommiselo omtsha wezomthetho okanye intsingiselo yezobupolitika. Ngale ngqiqo, ubukho bakuqala bunxulumene kakhulu nengcamango yokulawula ulawulo lwedemokhrasi: ukuba intsingiselo yomthetho itshintsha ezandleni zabagwebi abangamiselwanga, ngoko abantu abanonempumelelo bayakwazi ukuqonda uxwebhu ngolawulo lwabo olusisiseko.

Isiseko Sembali

Imvelaphi yoqalo lwamaqumrhu ingalandelana nexesha lokusekwa. Amafreysi kunye namarhafu aqonda umGaqo-siseko njengoxwebhu olubhaliweyo olunentsingiselo emiswe ngumbhalo neenjongo zababhali bawo. uNxulumaniso lweNtlalo[[FLT:].. 37, James Madison waphawula ukubaluleka "komgangatho oqhelekileyo" ukucombulula ukungavisisani ngentsingiselo yomgaqo-siseko, ngoxa ekuqaleni kweNkuNkundla ephezulu yayizinziwa ziimeko ezinje ngombhalo kunye neenjongo zababhali bayo. Ngokokutsho kwasekuqaleni, uMasson [[FLT] [[FLT] [FLT] [12:3] uqinisekisa indima ye-judiary' ekuchazeni umGathotho-siseko ngokweethethoba, i-Arclescean, ejongeneyonke, esetyenziswa yiNtton esetyenziswa yiNttontontontontonspigrover, eyaqalayo, eyaqalayokuqalisayo, eyathi esetyenziswayokusetyenziswayokusetyenziswa yiN

i-Corepets

I-Syndromeism ixhomekeke kwimimiselo emininzi esisiseko. Okokuqala, ibambelele ekubeni intsingiselo yesiseko imiswe ngexesha lokusetyenziswa kwemithetho-siseko. Intsingiselo yesiseko ibekwe ngexesha lokusetyenziswa kwendlela yokusebenza.

Iindidi Zobuntsundu

Ekuhambeni kwexesha, ingcamango yoqobo idibene kwizikolo ezihlukeneyo zengcinga , ngokuphawulekayo iinjongo zantlandlolo nentsingiselo yantlandlolo. Nganye inika indlela eyahlukileyo yokwahlula okuqulethwe ngumGaqo-siseko ozinzileyo, kwaye ukwahluka phakathi kwazo kunentsingiselo ebalulekileyo kuqheliselo lokugweba kunye nengxoxo yabaphengululi.

Ukuzimisela Kwangaphambili

Injongo yokuqala ibhekisa kwinjongo yabaququzeleli besakhelo somGaqo-siseko. Le ndlela, exhaswe ngabaququzeleli bomGaqo-siseko abafana noRobert Bork, ikhangela kwiinjongo zobuqu zababhali boxwebhu . Ngokukodwa abameli kwiConvention yoMgaqo-siseko yowewaka wewaka wewaka lama-1787-88 ukusombulula iinjongo zolwimi. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba ngenxa yokuba abadwebi babeyimi bomgaqo-siseko, iinjongo zabo zemigaqo-siseko zimele zikhokele ukutolika. Abagxeki, noko ke, babonise iingxaki ezinzulu ngalo ndlela: kusoloko kunzima ukuchaza iinjongo ezidibeneyo ezidibeneyo phakathi kwee-freyidingssssssss ezinamacards athe inguqulelo ezininzi. Abaquququzeleli benjongo yokuzingela iinjongo zokuqala.

Intsingiselo Yoqobo

Intsingiselo yokuqala .___amaxesha athile ibizwa ngokuba "intsingiselo yoluntu lokuqala" .Emphasize intsingiselo yombhalo njengoko uwonke wonke uyiqonda ngexesha lokusetyenziswa kwezixhobo. Kunokuba ubuze kwiinjongo ezingokwesithethe, le ndlela ibuza indlela umntu osengqiqweni kwixesha lokusekwa anokuyiqonda ngayo intsingiselo yombhalo wesiseko. UJaji Scalia wayengoyena ubalaseleyo ekumela ulawulo oluphambili lwale ndlela, kwaye uye waba yinkqenkqeza phambili kwenkqeza phambili yolwazi olusemthethweni. Ukusuka kwiinjongo zentsingiselo ye-freyinti kwakushukunyiswa kukhuthazo lokuba umGaqo-siseko, njengoxwebhu olubhaliweyo, ufumana igunya lawo kwisenzo sokwenziwa kweratlulawulo lwabantu abanegunya labo elilawulayo, ngoko ke, okunokuqondwa kwabo banike amandla asemthethweni asemthethweni. Ngokunjalo, oku kuqondwa kwabo banike intelelo olusemthethweni lwezinjongo esemthethweni kwiintlanganiso zabo zentelelo zentelelo-Rode.

Ukusetyenziswa KweeNkundla Zanamhlanje

Ingcebiso yoqobo iye yanempembelelo kwiingxoxo zomthetho zangoko, ingakumbi kumatyala omgaqo-siseko. Abanye abagwebi nabagwebi baphikisa ngelithi inika isiseko esicacileyo sokutolika umthetho, ngoxa abagxeki besithi unokuba lukhuni okanye uphelelwe lixesha. Ukususela ekuqinisekisweni kweJaji Scalialia ngo 1986, ingqikelelo ephambili iye yabonakala kuludwe olubanzi lweembono zeNkundla Eziphakamileyo . /ukusuka kwiSisombululo sesibini ukuya kumthetho womthetho ukuya kwinkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho (ngo-16) kwaye ifumene amandla awongezelelekileyo ngokumiswa kweJajini uClarence Thomas, uJajil Gorfort, Justice Bre Kavaugh, kunye noJastice Amy Conte Contey Barrettlett, ngamnye kubonge oluyet oluye lwave iziphumo ngemithetho yomthetho yaqala ukukhuthaza ukusetyenziswa kwabafundi abaphambili kwiinkundla zolawulo eziphantsi zolawulo lokuqala, apho abaquququluko luyelela khona iinkundla zesizwe, apho abaququluselelela khona ngokobuzweyo.

Izigqibo Zophawu Lwangaphambili

Izigqibo ezininzi zeNkundla Ephakamileyo zibonisa ukusebenza kwendlela yokusebenza. [[FTP] Kuhlobo lweNtloko oluthe tye] lwamacandelo [FT:] ukuthengwa kwengcaciso yeNkundla ePhakamileyo [[FT] [FT] kuxhomekeke kuhlobo lwamacandelo aphezulu]. [INkundla yesibini ikhusela ilungelo lokufumana izibham zomntu ngamnye ukuze abe ne "ziphene, ukuxhomekeka kakhulu kwintsingiselo yangaphambili yombhalo njengoko kuqondwa kwi 17911. [FT] Icandelo leNkuphetho] [2008] [iindlela ephambili] Inkundla yemithetho, ichaza ingcaciso yesazi, kunye nenkcazelo ekwimeko yexeshana engundoqo (iNt) iNtloko yeNtlanga yeNtlanga yeNtlanga). Ngokunjalo, ikhefuthelela i-[Fonke, i-Plainstton ye-emphan, iNt.[10] iNtouni yeNtoPumerike yeNto yeNto yeNto yeNtoliki yeN

Abaxhasi Ababalaseleyo Kule Ncwadi Yomculo

Phakathi kwabona bantu babalulekileyo kumbutho wamandulo kukho amaJaji abizwa ngokuba nguAntonin Scalia noClarence Thomas, omsebenzi wakhe uye wenza ngaphezu kwabo nabaphi na abanye abagwebi ukuguqula ubufunda bubhalwe phantsi kumthetho ophambili womgaqo - siseko.

IJaji uAntonin Scalia, owasebenza kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo ukususela ngo1986 de kwafa kwakhe ngo-2016, waye engoyena mxhasi ubonakalayo nongachananga wobuGaqo-siseko kwimbali yaseMerika. Iimbono zakhe ```enjongo yokuqala' kwaye engavumelaniyo) zasebenzisa intsingiselo yantlalo-ntle yangaphambili yoMgaqo-siseko, ngokufuthi enengqiqo engqongqo nenyanzelisayo ngokungqongqo. Ngonyaka ka1997 uTanner Lectures ePrinceton University, Scalia wahlula phakathi "intsingiselo yokuqala" kunye "nenjongo yokuqala," ephikisa ukuba okokuqala kusisiseko somthetho womthetho-siseko kuphela. Wayengaqondi ukuba uluvo lokuqala lungoluvo lwezo lwezopolitiko kodwa ngendlela yezomthetho ezithintela abagwebi ekubekeni izikhethelo zabo. Impembelelo kaSctaliaria yanweba ngaphaya kwendlela yakhe yolwazi olungo, kwaneethe ukuthetha ngokungqongqo, kwana kwana kwana kubabhali bembali, kwana beNkuquluko lwakhe.

IJaji Clarence Thomas, eyadibana neNkundla ngowe-1991, iye yaqhubeka nomsebenzi weNkundla yamandulo. Ngoxa uScalia maxa wambi eyeka ukulandela ingqiqo yakhe epheleleyo, uThomas ebesoloko ekulungele ukuphinda aphinde alandele imizekelo emisiweyo ephikisana nokuqonda kwasekuqaleni. Kwimeko ezibandakanya uburhulumente, ubuChomast Claus, u-Classiaste, kunye noManyuko okanye u-I-Imyunion Classiaste, uThomas uThomas uthethe ukuba anikezele kwiimfundiso ezisuka kwimfundiso zeNkundla ezindebe ezikhoyo kodwa ukholelwa ukuba unyanzelwe yintsingiselo yokuqala yoMgaqo-siseko. Umthetho wakhe obalulekileyo u-Fctive .[Fontactive uGenegracdal, akasoloko evuma ngenxa yolwazi oluninzi lwendalo lungaphindo olukhoyo, kodwa uGajikelezo lweNuthomo lwakhemo lwakhe uGene.

Ngaphezu kweNkundla ePhakamileyo, iBhosa eliphambili, linamava anamandla phakathi kwejaji yesizwe. Ijaji uFrank Easterbrook yeSithili sesixhenxe ifikelela kwiimbono zomGaqo-siseko kunye nenkcazelo yemithetho yezomthetho ngelensi yentsingiselo yantlandlolo, iphatha ukubhalwa kombhalo kunye nokumiselwa koqobo njengendlela ezinxulumene ngokusondeleneyo. Impembelelo yokulawula imibhalo kunye neyokuqala inxulumene nokulawula kolwazi lwamaqumrhu eProsoliti, uJaji William Pryr weSigqeba neJaji yeSizwe neSizwe uJeffrey Sutton yeSixhwebo sokuqala ifunda phantsi kwabaphengululi bokuqala okanye abaphengululi bokuqala. Oku kudluliselwa phambili kwendlela yomthetho kuqinisekisa ukuba intanda-bulumko iqhubeke ikho kumthetho wamashumi eminyaka eMerika.

Ukugxekwa Nocelomngeni

Abahlalutyi baphikisa ngelithi ukwenziwa kotshintsho olungqongqo kobukho boluntu kunye nezithethe ezigqwethekileyo. Bacebisa ukuba indlela ebhetyebhetye ivumela iinkundla ukuba zichaze umGaqo-siseko ngendlela ebonisa imilinganiselo yale mihla kwaye iimfuno. Oku kugxekwa kuthatha iindlela ezininzi kwaye kuvavanye ukutshintsha kokuqala kuzo zombini iinjongo ezikhoyo. Oku kunamandla kusekelwe kwingqwalasela yokuba isizukulwana esisunguliweyo . /abaninzi baso babenazo iinkonzo, abawakhankanyi ilungelo lokuvota, kwaye abathathi banele ukuba nenxaxheba kwezopolitiko kwimpahla yamadoda amhlophe amhlophe, qhatha utshintsho lwemilinganiselo yokuziphatha nentlalo-ntle elandele iinkulungwane. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko uyakwazi ukubongela ikhethe elikude nokukhusela uxwebhu ekusebenzeni njengenkqubo yentlalo nje.

Enye indlela yomGaqo-siseko ophilayo

Isinye esibalasele kakhulu kukuqala isiseko yindlela yokufikelela "Ephilayo", ethi intsingiselo yesiseko somgaqo-siseko iguquke ngokuhamba kwexesha ngotoliko lomthetho. Abaxhasi abanjengoJaji William Brennan noJaji Stephen Breyer baphikisa ngelithi uxwebhu olubhalwe ngobubanzi "" ukhuseleko olulinganayo," "inkqubo," "isohlwayo esingaqhelekanga" yenzelwe ukukhusela okuqhelekileyo okuqulathwethwe yimfuno ekufuneka ilungiswe ngabagwebi ukubonakalisa amaxabiso akhoyo. Umthetho ophilayo ugxininisa ukuvumelana, uthetha ukuba uxwebhu olubhalwe kwinkulungwane yeshumi elinesibhozo lungenakusetyenziswa kwiimeko zangoku ngaphandle kokuvumela iintsingiselo zalo zikhule. [[F3], u-F3] uphethofu, u-Edefu, u-Esvos.[10] u-Es.[194], unyuko olusuka kwinguqum, ulawulo lwe-Equm, ulawulo lwe-Esvolution, "[F][10], "[5], i-FogrouP], i-F], i-F

Izangqa zoqobo ziye zasabela kule ngxaki ngeendlela ezininzi. Abanye, njengoJaji Scalia, baphikisa ngelithi [[FLT: 0] Brown banokugwetyelwa ngokwezimilo zoqobo kuba ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kokhuseleko lwe-Fedial Clausle kwangqinelana nocalucalulo lobuhlanga olulawulwa ngurhulumente. Abanye, kuquka iJaji Thomas, bayavuma ukuba isiqalo sisenokufuna ukulahla imizekelo ethile ethandwayo kodwa sinyanzelele ukuba eli lixabiso lomgaqo-siseko ofaka urhulumente ngomthetho kunokuba ube yimvume yokulawula. Ingxoxo phakathi kokuqala nomthetho ophilayo ihlala ingekaguquki, kwaye iyaqhubeka ibumba iinkalo yoninzi lwemilo yomthetho waseMerika (iMelika 16) kunye nelungelo lokukhupha imiputhonga, ulawulo loburhulumente. Umbano lwamathe ukuba ngabagunya eliphakathi lifumene kwimeko phakathi kwabantu abasemthethweni begunya elingurhulumente.

Iingcamango Eziluncedo Nezingezo Zobuxoki

Ngaphandle kokungqubana nomthetho-siseko ophilayo, ubuqali buye bajamelana nothotho lweengcebiso ezicacileyo ezivela kubaphengululi abathandabuzayo ukuba ingadlulisela izithembiso zabo kusini na. Enye into edidekayo igxininisa kwiingxaki ezisebenzayo zokufumana intsingiselo yasekuqaleni. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba ingxelo yembali isoloko ingenaziqwenga, idida, okanye iphikisana, nto ebangela ukuba kungabi nako ukuchaza intsingiselo enye, ukunqanda intsingiselo yemiqathango emininzi yemithetho-siseko. Ixesha lokusekwa kwalo lalilixesha lengxoxo enzima yezobupolitika, kwaye amaMelika ayeneembono ezingquzulane kakhulu ngentsingiselo yeMigaqo-siseko ukususela ekuqaleni. Abagxeki bephikisa ukuba abaqalayo banyanzelwa ukuba abaxhasi banyanzelwe ukuba ubungqina bembali obuxhasa iziphumo zabo ezithandwayo, umkhwa wokuzisholo wokuzisholoza kwemithetho yomthetho.

Umgca wesibini wokugxeka uvavanya ukuseka isiseko sobuGaqo-siseko sobuGaqo-siseko. Kutheni sifanele sibotshwe ziimbono zabantu abaphila ngaphezu kweenkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo? Le "sandla esifileyo" impikiswano ithandabuza ilungelo lokuvumela isizukulwana esidlulileyo ukulawula esikhoyo. Oontanga baphendula ngokuthi umGaqo-siseko wasetyenziswa ngokweenkqubo zedemokhrasi . /ukumiswa kweendibano eziqhelekileyo . kwaye ukuba igunya lawo eliqhubekayo lixhomekeke kwimvume yabantu abalandelayo abakhetha ukungaziphelisi. Bakwaphikisa nokuba ingxaki efileyo ayiyo kwi-Bristrianism; nayiphi na indlela ephatha umGaqo-siseko njengomthetho omele wamkele ukuba umbhalo wawo ubhalwe kwindibano edlulileyo. Umbuzo awukho [[FLD:][FF][3]

Impikiswano yesithathu inyusa ingxaki yesandulela. Ukuzimisela kokuqala ukuqulunqwa kwentsingiselo kubonakala kungqubana nemfundiso ye ye-stares decisis, ethi iinkundla zimele zilandele izigqibo zangaphambili nokuba zigqitywe ngokuphosakeleyo. Ingaba ngaba ijaji ingaba ngumntu wakuqala ngelixesha ithetha ngemizekelo esuka kulwazi lwantlandlolo? Imithetho yakuqala esuka kuThomas, njengoJaji Thomas, ibikulungele ukulawula okanye ukubiza imizekelo emide engqineni ejongeneyo ukuba iyazivumelanisa nentsingiselo yoMgaqo-siseko. Ezinye, kuquka uJasti noMphathi uBarrett, iphikisane ukuba iyakwazi ukuhlalisa i-'inteko okanye i-mspresestionstions, ingumzekelo onzima, ityala elininzi, kwaye isoloko ingenangxaki phakathi kwemiqatha ephambili, ityala elingumthetho elinguwodwa nela ityala elingeyo.

Ukulungelelanisa Imvelaphi Yakho Nemilinganiselo Yanamhlanje

Ekwenzeni oku, iinkundla zisebenzisa uxinzeleleko phakathi kobuGaqo-siseko kunye namaxabiso anamhlanje ngohlobo oluhlukeneyo. Abanye abagwebi bamkela indlela "yobupractist" ejonga intsingiselo yokuqala njengento enye phakathi koninzi, ilandela umzekelo, inkcazo elandelelanayo, kunye nemigaqo edityanisiweyo yentlalo. Abanye basebenzisa "iindlela zokuqala zokudala zobuGqaqalo," ezizama ukuchaza iindlela zokuchaza isizukulwana ngokwaso, eziya kusenokufuna ukuqheliselwa kwazo, kuquka indlela yokuyila, ukuthelekisa, kunye nokwenza izinto. Abanye bafumana umahluko phakathi "kokuchaza intsingiselo emiselweyo yombhalo" kunye "umthetho-mthetho-siseko" (ukuzama ukuchaza intsingiselo yento eqinisekileyo, ekunokufuna ukuqheliswa kwazo phakathi kwemiqatha yenkcazelo emiselwe). Oku kuphuhliswa nakulwa kwabaphengululi bemfundo, ngokusetyenziswa nguRynet, kunye nomthetho wokuqala womthetho ovumela ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yezo zezo zezopolitishinethi.

KwiNkundla ePhakamileyo yangaxeshanye, inkoliso yamaJaji ayingobaqulunqi abaququzeleli bobuNtlalo-siseko abanyulu okanye abaxhasi bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo. Kunoko, badibanisa iindlela zokucacisa, besebenzisa iingcamango zoqobo kwezinye iindawo kwaye beqiqa ngendaleko kwezinye. UJaji Elena Kagan, umzekelo, uzichazile njengomntu wakuqala ngokwengqiqo yokuba uqala ngombhalo kunye nomongo wawo wembali, kodwa udibene neembono ezisebenzisa indlela yokuphila yesiseko somgaqo-siseko. Ugwebi uNeil Gormoth, ngoxa engoyena mbhali wendalo, ubonise ukukulungela intsingiselo yantlandlolo kwezinye imithombo, kuquka nomthetho wasemzini kwiimeko ezithile. Uninzi lwabagwebi bobuzwe bobuzwe bobuninzi bendalo abasebenzisa imigaqo-oqobo kwizixhobo ezizimele-oqobo phambi kwazo.

Ekugqibeleni, ukusetyenziswa komthetho wokuqala kusengumsebenzi ophambili kwaye kuphikisana nomthetho-siseko, ubumba indlela iinkundla eziluchaza ngayo uxwebhu lwesiseko se-United States. Intanda-bulumko iye yangqineka iqinile, isuka kwisikhundla esisemgangathweni kuma-7079 ibe nguwona mandla aphambili eMelika asemthethweni. Impembelelo yayo iyabonakala kungekuphela nje kwiimbono zomthetho kodwa kwakhona nakwizikolo zesikolo semfundo yesikolo, ukuququzelelwa kwemithetho phambi kweenkundla, yaye intetho kawonke-wonke ejikeleze imigaqo-siseko yezomthetho. Kwangaxesha libonisa ukusetyenziswa kwemibuzo enzulu yembali, ukungavumelani okuqhelekileyo, kwaye iimfuno zeqhinga ziqinisekisa ukuba ubukho bakuqala buqhubeke njengoko abagwebi kunye nabafundi becotha ingcamango kunye neemfuno zayo eziphambili. Ngokungathandabuzekiyo, ukuphikisana okuqhubekayo phakathi kwemigaqo-mthetho-siseko yangaphambili nemigaqo-siseko esemthethweni esemthethweni nengumthetho-siseko somthetho osemthethweni kuyaqhubeka, kuyaqhubeka ukusetyenziswa nje kuphela; ukusetyenziswa kwemisebenzi enzulu yezomthetho, ukusetyenziswa kweminye enyanzeleleka kubonakalisa i