Ukwazisa: Isiseko Sikarhulumente Olinganiselweyo

Umgaqo karhulumente olinganiselweyo ligumbi ledemokhrasi lolawulo-demokhrasi. Iqinisekisa ukuba igunya lorhulumente lisetyenziswa kwimida echaziweyo, ithintela ulawulo oluzikhetheleyo kunye nokukhusela inkululeko yomntu ngamnye. Imigaqo yomthetho inika ukwakhiwa kwale mida, ukuguqulela iinjongo zedemokhrasi ezingekho ngqiqweni kwimithetho enyanzelekileyo. Eli nqaku liyingqinela ingcamango yesivumelwano soluntu kunye nomthetho, ezi zimiselo zinyanzela oorhulumente ukuba benze izinto ngokucace gca, ngokuqwalasela, ngokulandelelana, kwaye ngokungaguqukiyo ngamalungelo asisiseko. Ngaphandle kokuzimisela ngokwasemthethweni, kwanoorhulumente abanyuliweyo bangabhenela kwimithetho elawulayo, njengoko imbali ibonisile ngokuphindaphindiwe. Eli nqaku lihlola iindlela ezingundoqo zezezezomthetho, ezomthetho, ezolawulo, ezolawulo lwezizwe ngezizwe, kunye nezingalathiyokusebenza kwamaqela.

Izibonelelo zomGaqo-siseko

IMigaqo-siseko yimithetho ephakamileyo esemthethweni yamazwe olawulo-moya. Iquka amalungiselelo achaza amagunya karhulumente namalungelo abemi. Umgaqo-siseko omiselwe kakuhle awuniki gunya nje kuphela; kwakhona umisela imida yesakhiwo nenkqubo. Iziqalelo ezintathu zinzima ngokukhethekileyo.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya

Ukwahlulwa kwamagunya karhulumente kwahlula iimbopheleleko zikarhulumente zibe ngamasebe ahlukeneyo, amasebe owiso-mthetho, kunye nezomthetho.

Iipeksi Nolungelelwano

Iingqinipho kunye nolungelelwano lumisela iindlela zokumisela amasebe onke ukumisela amagunya amanye, ukuqinisekisa ukuba intsebenziswano kunye nolawulo. Inkqubo yase-U.S. ingumfuziselo: uMongameli angawubeka umthetho weveto, kodwa iKhompathiswa ingawuyeka loo mgaqo ngevoti yee-3 ezimbini; iSentele iqinisekisa ukubekwa kwesebe elilawulayo nokuquququzelelwa kwezivumelwano; ijelo lejaji linokuwisa imithetho njengengathathi mithetho. KwiBhulumente yeUnited Kingdom, apho isigqeba sitsalwe kwindlu yolawulo, inkcaso eyomeleleyo, neNdlukwano yeNkosi iqinisekisa ukuba akukho ndima yesebe engundoqo enokusebenza ngokungenamdla.

IBhili yamaLungelo

IiBhili zamalungelo ziqinisekisa amalungelo asisiseko nenkululeko, ukukhusela abantu kurhulumente ophathwe kakubi. Ezi zibalwayo ngamalungelo , unqulo, inkqubo efanelekileyo, ukhuseleko olulinganayo, olukwimida emiselwe kwangaphambili kwimithetho-mthetho kunye nezenzo zegunya. IBhili yamaLungelo yase-U.S. (iintlawulo zokuqala zokuqala ezilishumi) kunye neSicangca samalungelo kunye nenkululeko saseCanadian siyimizekeliso esesikweni. Kwimiqathango emininzi yale mihla, amalungelo awachaphazeli (inkululeko ekuphazanyisweni ngurhulumente) kodwa kwakhona ayakhathazo (iiiiimfuno zemfundo, inkathalo yempilo), inyusa imisebenzi esemthethweni enyanzelisa la malungelo. Iinkundla zomgaqo-siseko ziqinisekisa ukuba abadlali bezomthetho bahlonela imiqathango yomthetho.

Impinda yezeejaji

Uhlolo lwezeejaji lusisixhobo esinamandla esivumela iinkundla ukuba zivavanye ubunjani bomGaqo-siseko wezenzo zorhulumente kunye nomthetho. Le nkqubo inika uvavanyo lwezomthetho namandla olawulo, isebenza njengesivikelo sokugqibela ekuxhatshazweni. Umba wesibonelelo se-U. Marbury v. Madison [1803]) wamisela amandla eenkundla zesizwe ukuphelisa imithetho engqubanayo nomGaqo-siseko. Ukususela ngoko, uhlolo lwezomthetho luye lwanwela kwinkoliso yedemodemokhrasi, nangona ubukhulu nobukhulu bayo buhlukene.

Ukutolikwa Kwemithetho

Iinkundla zichaza imithetho ngokulula kwimigaqo yomgaqo-siseko, ziqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente ziyavumelana namalungelo amiselweyo. Ukutolikwa komGaqo-siseko kungaba yiyo yokuqala (ukukhangela kwintsingiselo yokuqala) okanye uxwebhu oluphilayo (imigangatho ejikelezayo). EJamani, iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko isebenzisa uvavanyo lolwahlulo-manani ukuvavanya enoba umthetho uyachasa ekunene na kwaye enoba oko kuchasayo kuyagwetyelwa na. Le ndlela ifuna ukuba urhulumente abonise injongo esemthethweni, unxibelelwano olufanelekileyo, nemfuneko yokulungelelanisa i-listo halo .

Isicwangciso Sedefault

Izigqibo zejaji zidala imizekelo ebophelelekayo ekhokelela kumatyala exesha elizayo, ukukhulisa imilinganiselo yomthetho ngexesha elizayo. Kwinkqubo zomthetho eqhelekileyo, iinkundla ezisezantsi zibotshelelwa zimithetho yenkundla ephakamileyo phantsi stare decis. Nakumazwe omthetho wasekuhlaleni, izigwebo zenkundla yekomkhulu zine-fisi-legistive. Umzekelo, imimiselo yeNkqululo yezomthetho yeFrentshi yemithetho emitsha iba yi-deo amension enguqulo kumbhalo we-witrogist. Ngokcaciso oluzinzileyo, imisela ukunga ukungaqiniseki kwenyathelo kwaye yenza inyathelo likarhulumente licace.

Ukufikelela Kokusesikweni

Abami abaninzi bangayicell ’ umngeni imisebenzi karhulumente enkundleni, benika inkqubo yokuziphendulela. Oku kufuna imithetho emileyo engangqongqo kakhulu, kwakunye neenkqubo ezingenexabiso nezifikeleliyo zomthetho. Amazwe amaninzi amisele iinkqubo zomGaqo-siseko zokukhalaza ezivumela abantu ukuba bacele ngqo kwinkundla ephakamileyo. [[FLT:]] iVerfungsswerde [iiindlela yokuzibamba] (isikhalazo esingeyo) ngumzekelo ocatshuliweyo ocaciswe ngokubanzileyo: nawuphi na umntu othetha ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abo angundoqo ngokungqalileyo anokuzisa ityala emva kokudinisa ezinye izicombululo. Ngokufanayo, umGaqo-siseko waseAfrika unika nabani na osebenza kwinzala yawo okanye kwinzala kawonke, ngaphandle kokufikelela kolwazi olusebenzayo, idinga elinento elingundo.

Ulawulo lomthetho

Amaqumrhu asemthethweni adlala indima ebalulekileyo ekuhloleni izenzo neenkcitho zikarhulumente. Njengoko isebe linokuphendula ngqo kubavoti, iipalamente neengqungquthela zenzelwe ukuhlolisisa ulawulo oluphezulu. Iinkqubo eziliqela zombutho ziwenza usebenze kakuhle lo msebenzi.

IKomiti

Iikomiti ezikhethekileyo ziphanda imisebenzi karhulumente, zinika amagosa ityala ngezenzo zazo. Iikomiti ezizimeleyo kwiindawo ezinjengezemali, ubulungisa, kunye nemicimbi yamanye amazwe ziqhuba ukuchotshelwa kwetyala, amaxwebhu, kunye nengxelo yezoburhulumente. KwiBhunga lase-United States, iikomiti zinokunyanzela iingxelo zokuthotywa kwentlawulo nokungathotywa kwamangqina xa engavumi ukusebenzisana. Iikomiti zePalamente zeUK, eziquluniswe zii-MP, zivelisa iingxelo ezithi ngokufuthi zinyanzelise iinguqu zesebe lesebe.

Uluntu Lonke

Abaququzeleli bemithetho baqhuba iimvo zokuqokelela ulwazi nokuvumela abemi ukuba bavakalise inkxalabo yabo ngokuphathelele iinkqubo zikarhulumente. Ezi ntetho zidla ngokuvulelwa amajelo eendaba kunye noluntu, ukuqinisekisa ukuba zicace gca. Bangabhenca ukungalungi, ukunganyaniseki, okanye ukungaphumeleli kwenkqubo. Ngexesha lengxaki yemali yowa ngowama-2008, ukuchongwa kwengqungquthela kwazisa uphandle kwiinkqubo zebhanki nakwimpendulo zikarhulumente. Kwinkqubo yepalamente, ixesha lokubuza ixesha, apho abalungiseleli kufuneka baphendule imibuzo evela kwii-MPs-$_as, ifuna ukuphendula iinjongo ezifanayo, inyanzelela ukuba isikhululo siphendule izigqibo zaso ngexesha lokwenene.

Isalathisi soMsebenzi weNkqubo

Imithetho ifuna ukuba nayiphi na irhafu okanye inkcitho egunyaziswa ngumthetho kunye nevoti kwiindleko zoqingqo-mali zikawonke-wonke, iqinisekisa ukuba imali ihlawulwe ngokuvisisana nezona zibalulekileyo zedemokhrasi. Kwamanye amazwe, “amandla esipajini” angomnye wezona zinto zidala zokuhlola ulawulo lwegunya eliphezulu. Imithetho-siseko emininzi ifuna ukuba nayiphi na irhafu okanye inkcitho ivunyelwe ngumthetho ukuba isetyenziswe ngumthetho. Ingxoxo kunye nokuvota kwimiqathango yoqingqo-mali, kunye nokuvota komthetho oqingqo-mthetho owenziwe ngedemo-mthetho; ukukhutshwa koobhankitha okunamandla kwezicelo. Kwamanye amazwe, ikomiti yowiso-mthetho iyakwazi ukulungisa iingcebiso ezizincono zolawulo.

Umthetho Olawulayo

Umthetho wolawulo ulawula imisebenzi yamasebe olawulo karhulumente. Lo mmandla womthetho uqinisekisa ukuba izenzo zikarhulumente zisemthethweni, zisengqiqweni, kwaye zisesikweni ngokwesithethe. Njengoko imo yeli xesha ikhula, amaziko olawulo athathe inyathelo elikhulu lokumisela ulawulo kunye nezokuyila, ukwenza umthetho wolawulo ube luhlolo olubalulekileyo.

Imisebenzi Esetyenziswa Kumthetho

Izicelo kufuneka zilandele iinkqubo ezimisiweyo xa kusenziwa imimiselo, zivumela ungeniso kunye nokubonakala. UMthetho we-U.S.A. Procedministrative Procedire (APA) ufuna isaziso kunye nenkqubo yokuququzelela: amasebe apapasha imithetho ecetyisiweyo kwiBhayisho yeFederal, ameme amagqabaza kawonke-wonke, kwaye aphendule kwimiba ebalulekileyo ngaphambi kokukhupha umthetho wokugqibela. Le nkqubo imikhosi yamandla ithethelela izigqibo zawo nokuqwalasela ezinye iindlela. Kumazwe amaninzi aneemfuno ezifanayo. Kwi-European Union, i-Reglation Agenda imiyalelo ecwangcie, kunye nokucebisana kukawonke phambi kwezicelo ezinkulu zomthetho. Imigaqo-mthetho yomthetho engundoqo.

Ingqwalaselo yezenzo ze-arhente

Iinkundla zingahlola izigqibo zeziko eliPhakamileyo ukuqinisekisa ukungqinelana nemigaqo-siseko. Umgangatho wokuzihlola uyahluka: kwi-U.S., phantsi kwe i-Chevron imfundiso (ngoku ilungiswe zikomkhulu zeNkundla), iinkundla eziye zazindwe kukuchazwa okunengqiqo kwemigaqo ecacileyo; kwii-UK, iinkundla zisebenzisa umgangatho onolwazelelelo phantsi weWednesbury[[ ukuhlola. Ngaphandle komgangatho, ukuhlola okusemva kwezenzo zogwebo. Iinkundla kufuneka zihlale kugunyazo ezigunyazisiweyo zize zilandele umthetho. Xa zingaphumeleli, iinkundla zimisela ecaleni okanye ziphinde zimisele izigqibo ezibheke phambili.

Ukufanele Ubhenele

Abantu abachaphazelekayo kwizigqibo zolawulo bangabhenela kumagunya aphezulu, banike iziphumo zokuhlola amandla olawulo. Izibheno zangaphakathi, ii-ombuds ofisi, kunye neenkundla zisoloko zisebenza njengezokuqala zonyango lwezibheno. Umzekelo, i-UK’s First-tier Tribunal ithetha izibheno ngokuchasene nezigqibo eziphehlwayo ngamaqumrhu karhulumente kwimicimbi esukela kwirhafu ukuya ekungeneni kwabantu. Ukusuka apho, izibheno zingaya kwiNkundla yeSibheno sobheno.

UMthetho waMalungelo abantu Ehlabathi

Umthetho wamalungelo abantu wamazwe ngamazwe umisela imilinganiselo oorhulumente abamele bayithobele, bayinciphise, bawabeke phantsi amandla abo phezu kwabantu. Ngoxa ngokwesithethe igqalwa njengombandela wolongamo lwasekhaya, emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II kwavela ulawulo lwezizwe ngezizwe olunyanzela ukuthatha inyathelo lorhulumente kwanakwimida yelizwe.

Iintlanganiso Neendibano

Amazwe ayavumelana nezivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe ezikhusela amalungelo abantu, ezopolitiko, ezoqoqosho, nawobuntlalo, kunye nezobuzwe. Umnqophiso wezizwe ngezizwe wamalungelo abantu namalungelo abantu (ICCPR) kunye noMvumelwano wezizwe ngezizwe ongokwaseMhlabeni wezeNtlalo, weNtlalo-ntle neNkcubeko (ICECR) ubumba umqala wemithetho yamalungelo ehlabathi. Iinkqubo zephondo (i-U.) njengeNgqungquthela yeNtlanganiso yaseYurophu yaMalungelo oLuntu (ECH) kunye neSivumelwano sobuGawula saMalungelo soluntu (ICPCPR) kunye neSivumelo sezizwe (ICPR) kunye neSivumelwano soMbutho wamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe Ngamazwe (ICCCCCCCRR) zingundood) zingulo ingundoombolo lwemithelela iimbopheleleko ezinyaniso ezinyaniso ze

IMibutho eHlolwayo

Imibutho yezizwe ngezizwe ijonga ukuthotyelwa kwemilinganiselo yamalungelo abantu, ibeka oorhulumente ekubabekeni ityala lokwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu. IKomiti yamaLungu yaMalungelo abantu (yokusetyenziswa kwe-ICCPR), iNkundla yaseYurophu yaMalungelo abantu (ECTHR), kunye neKhomishini yeMelika eMelika ejongene namalungelo abantu ingumzekelo obalaseleyo. Le nkqubo ifumana iingxelo ezivela kumaphondo, iingcebiso zesigqibo, kwaye maxa wambi iyakwazi ukuva izikhalazo. IMimiselo yamatyala yaMalungu ngamanye amazwe, kwaye ukuphunyezwa kwawo kulawulwa yiBhunga laseYurophu. i-Non-compliance inokuba neziphumo zoxinzelelo okanye kwana zokupheliswa kwintlangano. Oku kuhlola kwangaphandle kongeza umaleko wokuphendula imicimbi engenakubonelelwa yinkqubo yezenzo.

Umntu Omnye Ukhalaza Ngomatshini

Abami bayakwazi ukubiza izikhalazo ngokuchasene noorhulumente babo bezizwe ngezizwe, befuna ukubuyiselwa ekuxhatshazweni kwamalungelo abantu. I-ECTHR iqhuba amawaka ezicelo zomntu ngamnye nyaka ngamnye, kwaye imithetho yayo iye yanyanzelisa iinguqu ezisemthethweni wesizwe, ezifana noqheliselo lokuhlola okanye amalungelo okuvota amabanjwa. Phantsi kwe-ICPR’S First Accessivement Protocom, abantu abakumazwe anokuzithethelela kwiKomiti yamaLungelo oluntu. Ngoxa izigqibo zekomiti zingabopheleleli ngokusemthethweni njengemigwebo yenkundla, zithwala umlinganiselo obalulekileyo wokuziphatha kunye namalungelo okuvota.

Ukuthabatha Inxaxheba Kuwonke Wonke Nokubonisa ngaphaya Kweliso

Ukuthabatha inxaxheba kuwonke wonke nokubonakala ngokucacileyo kubalulekile ekumileni igunya likarhulumente. Xa abemi bexelelwe kwaye bethembisene, banokuphendula amagosa.

Inkululeko Yolwazi

Le mithetho ivumela abemi ukuba bafumane iingxelo zikarhulumente, bakhuthaze ukubonakala nokuphendulana. Inkululeko yolwazi yase-U.S. ngumzekelo ophawula iziganeko, onika iintelezi, abaxhasi belizwana, nabantu abaqhelekileyo ukucela amaxwebhu asuka kwimisebenzi yombutho ukuya kunxibelelwano lwe-imeyili. Amazwe amaninzi aye amkela imithetho efanayo, nangona umgangatho wokungahlawuli nokusebenza kwamagosa e-ofisini ungafani. Ulawulo lwe-FOI olusebenzayo lufuna ukupapashwa okunentsingiselo kolwazi olungundoqo, ukwenziwa kwezixhobo eziphantsi, kunye nolawulo oluzimeleyo lokuthobela. Ngaphandle kokwazi ilungelo, abemi abanako ukukwazi ukuqwalasela izenzo zorhulumente okanye ukuvavanyaza.

Ulawulo Olunenxaxheba

Umatshini wokucebisana noluntu unika abemi ithuba lokuba babandakanye kwiinkqubo zokwenza izigqibo. Oku kunokwenziwa ngamaxesha okuphendula kukawonke-wonke, iintlanganiso zeholo yedolophu, okanye uqingqo-mali lokuncedisa. EBrazil, uqingqo-mali lokuncedisana kwizixeko ezifana noPorto Alegre unika abemi uluvo olungqalileyo ngokusetyenziswa kukamasipala. Kumazwe aseYurophu, iKhomishini iqhuba izicelo zikawonke-wonke kumthetho we-appic. Nangona kungeyo yonke inxaxheba ebophelele, inyanzelela oorhulumente ukuba baqwalasele iimbono ezahlukeneyo kwaye batyhile iimpazamo kwimigaqo ecetyisiweyo. Imimiselo yezomthetho iqinisekisa ukuba ukubhalisa okunjalo akubonisi nje umqondiso.

Ukukhusela Abavuthuzi Beentaka

Imithetho ikhusela abantu abanikela ingxelo yokunganyaniseki korhulumente, ukukhuthaza ukuphendula ityala kunye nokuthembeka. Abaqhubi basoloko bejamelene nempindezelo, ngoko ke amakhaka aqinileyo angokwasemthethweni ayimfuneko. UMthetho we-Whistletropiller Protection Act, oqinisiweyo, othintela izenzo ezingalunganga zabasebenzi besizwe abachaza inkcazelo engekho mthethweni, inkunkuma, okanye ukuxhaphaza. Imithetho efanayo ikho kwidemokhrasi ezininzi. Iinkqubo zezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe, njengalowo okhuthazwa yintlangano yezentengiselwano yeCooperation kunye noPhuhliso (OCD), ikhuthaza izenzo ezingcono kakhulu. Ngaphandle kokuzinziswa komthetho, umngcipheko wokuthetha ngaphandle komthetho uphaka komthetho, kwaye ulwazi olubalulekileyo malunga nokuphambaxa-mali okanye ukonakala koburhulumente aluze nakuze lubone ukukhanya kosuku.

Isiphelo

Imigaqo-nkqubo esemthethweni yokumisela ulawulo lorhulumente ekwahluleni igunya ibalulekile kwimpilo-ntle yoluntu olulawulwa yidemokhrasi. Ngokumisela imida ecacileyo, ngokuqinisekisa ukuphendulelwa komthwalo wemfanelo, nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye, ezi zilungiselelo zixhasa imigaqo yedemokhrasi. Amalungiselelo omthetho wowiso-mthetho, ukujongana nemithetho yolawulo, umthetho wolawulo, ulawulo lwamalungelo abantu, kunye nenkqubo yokuzibonelela ngamanye amazwe, nganye inegalelo kwinkqubo yokuthintela ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwegunya. Noko ke, ezi zakhiwo azizibophi na ilungelo lokuziphendulela; zifuna ukuqapha okuqhubekayo, ukrwelelo lwezopoliti, ubundlomfomasi, amagunya ongxakeko, kunye nezisongelo ezintsonko, ibutho elintsonkothile, imimandla ezahlukahlukeneyo, kufuneka ziqhubeke zilungelene kwaye ziqinise olu lawulo-demo-demokhrasi luxhomekeke ekulawuleni komthetho kunye nenkululeko ekufuneka ikho.

ukuqhubekeka kofundo olu: U.S. Constitution [[FLT:] [4] Inkundla yeNkundla yamalungelo abantu ye-Eucian[ . . . . . . . . . . . .