Isiseko Segunya Likarhulumente Kumanyano LwaseMerika

UMgaqo-siseko weUnited States umisela inkqubo apho amandla ahlulwe ngabom phakathi korhulumente wesizwe namazwe. Unyulo lweSimende se- lusebenza njengelitye lomGaqo-siseko lwegunya likarhulumente, ngokucacileyo ligcinela kumazwe (okanye kubantu) onke amagunya anganikwanga ngokukhethekileyo kurhulumente worhulumente wesizwe okanye angavunyelwanga kumazwe. Olu khetho lwesakhiwo, oluchazwe ngokubanziyo nguJaji Louis Brandeis njengoyila "oosunguli bedemokhrasi," luvumela ukuba azame ngemithetho eyahlukeneyo elungele abantu bawo kunye nee-geographics. Ukuqonda umgangatho wezwe likarhulumente ubaluleke ekuqondeni indlela ulawulo lweMerika enyani, njengoko imithetho nemigaqo esoloko ichaza ubomi obufutshane kunale mihla yonke imigaqo-yo.

Imfundo: Ukubeka umgangatho, ukuxhasa nokulawula Ummandla

Mhlawumbi owona mzekelo ungqalileyo wamandla karhulumente kukulawulwa kwemfundo karhulumente. Ngeli xesha urhulumente worhulumente enikela inkxaso eyongezelelekileyo nokhokelo oluphangaleleyo ngomthetho onjengethi Everse Students Eveeds Act (ESSA), iimbopheleleko ezingundoqo zokusebenza kwezikolo zikawonke-wonke ziwela ngokugqibeleleyo kurhulumente nakurhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Umgaqo-siseko karhulumente phantse ukuba ugunyazise ilungiselelo "longameleyo nelomeleleyo" okanye "umgangatho" wenkqubo yesikolo sikawonke-wonke-wonke esikhululekileyo.

Imilinganiselo yeCarcuricula neyokuQalisa

Oorhulumente banegunya lokumisela oko kufundiswa ngabafundi. Oku kuquka ukumisela imilinganiselo yolwakhiwo lwemfundo kwimixholo engundoqo enjengezibalo, isiNgesi, inzululwazi, kunye neezifundo zentlalo. IKhomishini yonikezelo yase-United States[ inika ugcino-lwazi oluninzi ngendlela urhulumente ngamnye angena ngayo kummiselo osezantsi kunye nohlolo. Amazwe akwamkela ngayo iincwadi kunye nezinto zokufundisa, amandla anokuba anokutshintsha kakhulu xa kuvela iingxoxo ngomxholo wohlelo. Umzekelo, uthetha njengoTexas kunye noKhalifoniya, ngenxa yamandla awo amakhulu okuthenga, anokuphembelela ngokuphawulekayo urhwebo lwamazwe.

Ukubonelela Ngemali Kwesikolo Nolawulo

Oorhulumente banikwe imbopheleleko yokuseka izikolo nokumisela amacandelo abo olawulo. Ngokuqatha kakhulu, umisela iinkqubo zokuxhasa izikolo zikarhulumente. Ukuxhomekeka kwirhafu yempahla yasekuhlaleni ngokwembali kuye kwakhokelela kwiiyahluka-hluka ezinkulu ekuhlawuleni imali phakathi kwesithili esisityebi nesihlwempu, inyanzelisa iinkundla ezininzi zelizwano zikarhulumente ukuba zingenelele kumacandelo angekho semthethweni. Iindlu zowiso-mthetho kufuneka zilungelelanise uqingqo-mali lwemfundo, ukuhlawulwa kwemirhumo yempahla, kunye neenkqubo ezikhethekileyo zemfundo. Eli gunya lemali linika oorhulumente abaninzi oorhulumente ukuba bangenelele kwiibhodi zesikolo zasekuhlaleni.

Umfundisi- ntsapho Uqinisekiso

Amazwe amisela iimfaneleko ezifunekayo kubafundisi- ntsapho. Oku kuquka ukumisela iimfuno zeenkqubo zokulungiselela umfundisi- ntsapho, ukukhupha amalayisensi okufundisa, nokulungisa imfundo eqhubekayo. Iinkqubo ezikhethekileyo zokuqinisekisa ukuba isiqinisekiso sikho ziyahluka-hluka kakhulu, zibonisa ezona zinto ziphambili kumgangatho womfundisi- ntsapho, ezinye iindlela zokuya eklasini, kunye neemfuno zokuvavanya.

Ukuhamba: Ukulawula Ukungalungisi Nokuthotywa Kwezithuthi

Oorhulumente bangoosomashishini abaphambili bokwakha nabalondolozi benethwekhi yezothutho yelizwe. Ngeli xesha inkqubo yendlela yohola wendlela ephakathi komhlaba yayilinyathelo likarhulumente, imbopheleleko eqhubekayo yeendlela ezininzi, iibhulorho, kunye neenkqubo zothutho zixhomekeke kumaSebe ezothutho karhulumente (i-DOT). Amandla okulawula iinqwelo-mafutha, abaqhubi belayisensi, kunye neprojekthi yezezezimali zinika ulawulo olunamandla kunyakatho nakurhwebo.

Ulwakhiwo lwendlela ephakamileyo nogcino

I-DOTs yeSizwe ilawula izigidi-zigidi zemingxuma yendlela yeendlela kunye neendlela, kuquka iinkqubo zezohola-ndlela ezibalulekileyo ezizondla kwinethwekhi yesizwe. Amazwe ajongene nobunjineli, ugcino, kunye novavanyo lokhuseleko. Umthombo oyintloko wemali yokuxhasa lo msebenzi yirhafu yepetroli yemoto yesizwe (irhafu yegesi), echaza ukuba intlawulo eyahlukeneyo. Ukuhla kwerhafu yerhafu yegesi ngenxa yezithuthi zepetroli ezisebenzisa ipetroli kunyanzelele amazwe amaninzi ukuba azame ezinye iindlela zobuchule bokuxhasa imali, njengemirhumo yezithuthi zombane okanye iindleko zomsebenzi osekelwe kwimayile.

Umgaqo-nkqubo woncedo nokhuseleko

Amandla okumisela imithetho yeetrato ngumzekelo oqhelekileyo wamandla karhulumente. Amazwe amisela isantya, amisela imithetho yendlela, kwaye amisela iimfuno zokhuseleko ezifana nemithetho yesihlalo kunye nezigcina-ntloko zesithuthuthu. Kwakhona ama-odoli alawula iinkqubo zokulungisa imoto, amisela imilinganiselo yokuba ubani ofanelekele ukusebenzisa isithuthi. Umlinganiselo osemthethweni wotywala obuqulethwe yigazi (BAC), ngoxa uphenjelelwa zizikhuthazo zikarhulumente, udityaniswa kumgangatho karhulumente.

Unikezelo lukawonke-wonke nokhuthuzo

Oorhulumente badla ngokulawula okanye baxhase iinkqubo zothutho lukawonke-wonke, kuquka ooduladula, abahambi ngezithuthi, kunye noololiwe abahamba ngaphantsi komhlaba. Kwakhona balawula inqwelo-moya ehambayo kunye nokulawula iinqwelo-moya ezininzi zengingqi. Imidlalo ephakathi kwemali karhulumente neyamarhulumente ibalulekile kwimisebenzi emikhulu yokuthutha abantu, kodwa isigqibo sokufaka imali ekuthutheni umgama oya kuhambelana nolwando lwendlela siselunegunya elinamandla.

Ukhuseleko Loluntu Nobulungisa Bezaphuli - mthetho

Ingcamango "yamandla asekuhlaleni" ingundoqo kulawulo lukarhulumente. Eli gunya libanzi livumela oorhulumente ukuba bamise imiqathango yempilo, ukhuseleko, kunye nemilinganiselo yokuziphatha yabemi babo. Inika isiseko esisemthethweni somthetho wenkqubo yobulungisa, amaziko okunyanzelisa umthetho, kunye nezakhiwo zolawulo longxamiseko.

Ukunyanzeliswa Komthetho Nemithetho Yezaphuli - mthetho

Oorhulumente bamisela amapolisa okanye oorhulumente abagada iinqwelo-ndlela abalawulayo kulo lonke iphondo. Okubaluleke ngakumbi, izindlu zowiso-mthetho zichaza ihambo yolwaphulo-mthetho. Izenzo ezinjengokubulala, ubusela, ukuhlasela, kunye nokuqhatha zichazwa ngemithetho karhulumente, hayi ngomthetho karhulumente. Ngoxa kukho ulwaphulo-mthetho olunxulumene norhulumente (njengokurhwebelana ngeziyobisi okanye ukuphanga ebhankini), uninzi lwabagqwino-tyala lubakho kwiinkundla zikarhulumente phantsi komthetho wezwe.

ICandelo Lesizwe Nempendulo Yexesha Lentlekele

Ibamba lisebenza njengenkokeli yomkhosi wesizwe sombuso. Eli gunya livumela abalawuli borhulumente ukuba bathumele amajoni abagada kwiintlekele zikarhulumente, kuquka iintlekele zendalo (iiHuricani, izikhukula, imililo yemililo) kunye nokuphazamiseka kwabemi. Abagada basebenza phantsi komyalelo karhulumente (Isihloko 32) xa besenza imisebenzi yesizwe, eyahluke kwindima yabo karhulumente (Isihloko 10). Esi simo sibini silungu lokwakha lombuso waseMelika, ukunikezela ngomkhosi olungeleleneyo ukwenzela ingxamiseko yasekhaya ngaphandle kokufuna ukuvunywa ngurhulumente.

Ukulungisa Nokulungisa

I-States isebenzisa iinkqubo zentolongo ezihlala uninzi lwabagwebi ababanjwayo eUnited States. Amasebe olungiso lwezorhulumente alawula ukuvalelwa, ukuvalelwa kwetyala, kunye neenkqubo zokulingwa. Inani elandayo lamazwe asebenzisa amandla awo ukuguqula iinkqubo zobulungisa zolwaphulo-mthetho, ukudlulisa "bhan ibhokisi", ukunciphisa izigwebo ezisezantsi ezinyanzelekileyo, kunye nokwandisa ezinye iindlela zokufumana imvume zokubanjwa. IFEDALment Eme Agency (FEMA)[FLM:1] iququzelela inkxaso yesizwe yempendulo yentlekele karhulumente, kodwa ukuphendula kokuqala nokuchachachacha kuyizibo ezingundoqo zemeko zikarhulumente.

ISebe lezeMpilo neleMisebenzi

Urhulumente ungundoqo kulawulo lwezonyango neenkqubo zentlalo-ntle. Ukwahlulwa koxanduva phakathi kwamagunya karhulumente namagunya aseburhulumenteni kulo mmandla kuntsonkothile, ngokufuthi kubandakanya ukuxhasana kwemali kunye nolawulo lwamaqumrhu, kodwa amazwe ayaqhubeka enegunya elibalulekileyo.

Impilo karhulumente

Inkqubo kaMedicaid yinkqubo edityanisiweyo yesizwe sesizwe enika inkcazo yempilo kubantu ngabanye abafumana imali ephantsi kunye neentsapho. Amazwe asebenzisa iinkqubo zawo zeMedicaid ngaphakathi kwemigaqo karhulumente, nto leyo ethetha ukuba anegunya elithe ngqo kumgangatho wokungazaliseki, iinzuzo ezigqunyweyo, kunye nemali yokubonelela. Ulwandiso lweMedicaid phantsi koMthetho wesibonelelo esiphantsi kwempilo (ACA) lwaba sisigqibo somgaqo-nkqubo sorhulumente, namanye amazwe alwandisa kwaye awamkeli. Olu khetho luye lwaneziphumo ezingenakuthelekiswa namali nemali ekhoyo esibhedleleyo. Iminyango yempilo yezonyango yezonyango, ukuphatha izifo, ukuhlasela, ukuhlasela, ukuthintela, kunye nokunqanda izifo okunganyangephiyo.

Ukufumana imvume yamagcisa anyamekela impilo

Amandla okulawula kunye nokulawula imvume yoogqirha, abongi, osokhemisti, kunye nezinye izifundiswa zonyango axhomekeke kwiibhodi zezonyango zezorhulumente kunye namaqumrhu athengisa i-inface. Oku kuqinisekisa imilinganiselo esisiseko yenkathalo kodwa kukwadala imiqobo ekusetyenzisweni kwemibutho yamazwe ahlukeneyo, incopho ethe yaqalisa ukuchaza ii-interstatementments communsion (njenge-Interstate Medical Licensive Convention).

ISebe lifumana iinkonzo zentlalo-ntle

Amazwe asebenzisa iinkqubo zezentlalo-ntle ze-ovement for Needy Families (TANF) inkqubo kunye neSomaral Nutrition Application Program (SNAP, ezazisakuba zizitembu zokutya). Ama-United States ayakwazi ukutshintsha-tshintsha kwiinkqubo zokuyila i-TANF, kuquka ukumisela iimfuno zomsebenzi, imigangatho eyingenelo, kunye nemiqathango yexesha. Iinkonzo zokukhusela abantwana (CPS) zikarhulumente zimele ukuphanda ukuhlaselwa nokutyeshelwa kwabantwana, ukulawula iinkqubo zokunyamekela abafumanisileyo, kunye nemibutho yokukhulisa abantwana.

Ukhuseleko lokusingqongileyo noovimba bendalo

Oorhulumente basebenzisa igunya eliphangaleleyo kokusingqongileyo, oovimba bendalo, kunye nokusetyenziswa komhlaba. Ngeli xesha i- ekwi-Environal Protection Agency (EPA) imisela imigangatho esisiseko yamazwe phantsi kwemithetho enjenge-Coocse Air Act kunye noMthetho we-Chrean Act, amazwana ajongene nolawulo lokusebenza nokunyanzelisa le migangatho. Ngaphezu koko, amajelo angamkela imimiselo yemekobume elungeleleneyo engaphaya kwemithetho karhulumente.

Ubunjani bomoya namanzi

Umba wolawulo lwemekobume uvumela ukukhutshwa komchiza woshishino, ukunyanzelisa imigangatho yomgangatho womoya, kunye nokuphuhlisa ukwenziwa kwemiqathango yolawulo lwesizwe (SIPS) ukufikelela iinjongo zomgangatho womoya karhulumente. Umzekelo ongundoqo wamandla karhulumente ligunya elikhethekileyo leKhalifoniya phantsi kweSikolo saseCalifoniya ukukhangela umenzi-mngeni osuka kwi-EPA ukumisela eyayo, imilinganiselo yezithuthi ezingqongqo. Amanye amazwe angakhetha ukuthatha imigangatho yeKhalifoniya yaseKhalifoniya okanye imigangatho karhulumente. Ngamanzi, alawula ubunjani be-omatilo-o-oMkhosi we-omatilo-oMkhosi we-onqaka (phantsi kweSizwe i-Dixobo-Iviation I-Ivisionation Sy, okanye i-NPDES), ukulawula iinkqubo zokukhupha amanzi, nokulawula ukurhoxazulu nokusetyenziswa kolwandle, okunokodwa okubalulekileyo kumazwe aseNtshona Koloni apho amalungelo alawulayo akwindawo eyongameleyo.

Ukusetyenziswa komhlaba nokuzingela

Amandla okulawula ukusetyenziswa komhlaba aphantse abe ngumsebenzi okhethekileyo karhulumente norhulumente wasekuhlaleni. Ama-odonga amisela imisebenzi yokwenza ukuba kubekho ukuceba nokubekwa kwemithetho yokunika amacandelo kunye noomasipala. Oorhulumente bamazwe bamisela imithetho enxulumene nolawulo lokwahlulwa kolwahlulwa komanyano, imigaqo yokwakha, kunye nempembelelo yemekobume. Kwakhona abaphathi-mimandla emikhulu yamazwe kawonke-wonke (ngokuchasene namazwe karhulumente anjenge- National Forests neParks) kunye nokulawula imigodi, ukugawulwa, nokugawulwa kwe-oli kunye negesi kumazwe angawodwa nawabo.

Ulawulo lwenkunkuma nolondolozo

Amazwe alawula ukulahlwa kwenkunkuma eqinileyo neyingozi, ajonge iinkqubo zokuphinda isetyenziswe, alawule nokucocwa kweendawo ezingcolisweyo.

Ukubuyiselwa kwezoqoqosho norhwebo

Amandla okulawula ezorhwebo kwimida karhulumente ligunya elisisiseko likarhulumente, elahlukileyo kumandla karhulumente orhwebo oluphakathi kwelizwe. Amaqumrhu omgaqo-siseko, amashishini neingcali zemali, nokuseka isakhiwo esisemthethweni sezivumelwano.

Imo yeshishini

Phantse wonke amashishini eUnited States enziwe phantsi komthetho wesizwe. Ama-odoli amisela imithetho yokwenza iinkampani, iinkampani ezisikelwe umda (i-LLCs), unxulumano, namanye amashishini. Amazwe afuna amashishini kunye noogcisa ukuba bafumane amalayisensi kunye nemvume yokusebenza ngokusemthethweni. Oku kuquka yonke imvume yokusebenza kwezombane kunye nezazi ngenzululwazi yendalo ukuvumela iivenkile zokutyela kunye neefektha zokwakha. Iimfuno zokulungisa ii-intwala zemali ziyahluka-tshintsha-tshintsha phakathi kwamazwe, nto eye yakhokelela ekuxambuliseni abantu abanolwazi oluneyo ngezakhono ezisebenza kumaziko agunyaziwe.

Ukusebenza Nomthetho Womsebenzi

Amazwe ayasebenza ekulawuleni umsebenzi. Ngeli xesha urhulumente wesizwe emisela umvuzo omncinci, urhulumente omninzi uye wasebenzisa amandla awo ukumisela umvuzo omninzi ophezulu kakhulu karhulumente. Amazwe akwamisela nemithetho yolawulo lobuninzi bomsebenzi, isidlo kunye nokuphumla, imbuyiselo, kunye ne-inshorensi yokungaqeshwa. Ummandla obalulekileyo wamandla karhulumente kukumiswa kwemivuzo ephezulu "ukuya kumsebenzi ophezulu" imithetho, ethintela izivumelwano zokhuseleko, okanye ukuhlawulwa kwentsapho kunye neenkqubo zekhefumfa yezonyango, ezingazange zimiselwe ngurhulumente. U.S. Isebe lemisebenzi yemisebenzi ye-ORG. limisela imivuzonga yeentlawulo encinane enqamlezileyo, ibonakalisa uludwe lweenkqubo zezonyango.

Irhafu

Amandla erhafu ayimfuneko kulawulo lukarhulumente. Ama-odolo anyanzelisa iirhafu zerhafu, iirhafu zeshishini, iirhafu zempahla, kunye nerhafu ekhutshwayo kwizinto ezifana nepetroli necuba. Inkqubo yerhafu yelizwe isisixhobo esinamandla sokukhuthaza inkqubela yezoqoqosho, kunye namazwe akhuphisanayo ukutsala amashishini ngentshukumisa yerhafu netyala. Umahluko kwimithwalo yerhafu karhulumente unamandla, kunye namanye amazwe (njengeTexas neFlorida) ngenxa yokuhlawula irhafuzo lobuqu ngokupheleleyo, ngoxa amanye (njengeKhalifoniya neNew York) enerhafu yerhafu enyukayo.

Unyulo noLawulo lwezolawulo

Inqaku I, Icandelo 4 lomGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. linika igunya lokumisela "Ixesha, Iindawo kunye noManda wokuphatha uKhetho lwabaLahli nabameli." Oku kwenza urhulumente abe ngumlawuli oyintloko wonyulo lwaseMerika.

Ubhaliso lweVoter noLawulo loPhuhliso

I-States imisela imithetho yokubhalisa umvoti, kuquka iinketho, iindlela (umgca, ozenzekelayo, usuku olunye), kunye neemfuno zokwalatha. Ama-odoli agqiba iintlobo zeenkqubo zokuvota ezisetyenziswayo (iibhola, oomatshini be-elektroniki), amisela amaxesha okuvota kwangoko, kwaye alawula ukuvota (ngokufuthi kuthiwa ukungabikho okanye ukuvota ngeposi). Imithetho ethile elawula ezi nkqubo iyahluka kakhulu, ibonisa iintanda-bulumko zombuso ezahlukeneyo ngokuphathelele ukufikelela komjelo nokunyaniseka konyulo.

Ukuhlaziya

Izindlu zowiso-mthetho zephondo (okanye iikhomishini ezizimeleyo ezenziwe ngumthetho wesizwe) zinomthwalo wokuzoba zombini izithili zemithetho yowiso-mthetho kunye ne-U.S. Congregational zommandla emva kobalo lwaminyaka-nyaka ngamnye. Eli gunya lokuzilolonga lineenjongo ezinkulu zezobupolitika, njengokuba indlela imigca yesithili izakuzotywa ngayo ingamisela ukuba liliphi iqela elilawula indlu yowiso-mthetho okanye abathunywa be-burhulumente besizwe kangangeminyaka elishumi. Imilinganiselo esemthethweni yokuhlaziya (njenge "umuntu omnye, ivoti enye" kunye neSivumelo samaLungelo sobuhlanga sokukhusela i-gerrymanling) imiswe ziinkundla zorhulumente, kodwa ukuzoba kokuqala iimaphu ngumsebenzi ongundoqo.

Umthetho Wentsapho Nezinto Ezikumgangatho Ophezulu

Umthetho wolwalamano lwasekhaya namalungelo empahla ngummandla wolawulo oluphantse lube lodwa. Le yimithetho elawula ubomi babucala.

Umtshato, Uqhawulo - mtshato, Nokugcina Abantwana Benomntwana

I-United States ikhupha imvume yomtshato imisele neemfuno zomtshato. Umthetho karhulumente ulawula ukuququzelela uqhawulo-mtshato, kuquka ukwahlulwa kwempahla yomtshato (ukwabiwa kwempahla okungaguquguqukiyo/ukungaguquguquki), inkxaso ekhoyo (antium), ukugcinwa kwabantwana kunye nokuxhaswa kwabo. Ngoxa iNkundla ePhakamileyo yase-U.S. imisele ilungelo elisemthethweni lomtshato osukruqukileyo kumtshato ofanayo Obergecreb v. Hodges, ulawulo lomtshato kunye nesigqibo sengxube-mvilaniso zentsapho zihlala zikho ngokupheleleyo kwinkqubo yenkundla yenkundla.

Izakhono, Izakhiwo Neengxelo Zempahla

Umthetho wesizwe ulawula ukwenziwa kwemimiselo kunye nolawulo lwezabelo. Iinkundla zephondo lombuso zongamela ukusasazwa kwezinto emva kokufa. Umthetho karhulumente ukwachaza iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zobunini bempahla (njengokudibana nokusetyenziswa komhlaba wonke) kwaye unika inkqubo yokushicilela ukuthengiselwa kwemali yefa lokwenene (imisebenzi, iimali ezithengwa ngemali, iimali-mboleko). Ezi ngxelo zomhlaba zigcinwa kumgangatho wengingqi phantsi kwegunya elinikwe ngurhulumente.

Isiphelo

Imizekelo yamagunya karhulumente ibanzi kwaye idibene kakhulu nesiseko sobomi baseMerika. Ukusukela kwisiseko semfundo kunye nezothutho ukuya kulawulo lobulungisa, ukunyamekela impilo, unyulo, kunye nolwalamano lobuqu, amatyala ayimibutho elawulayo ephambili kubemi. Inkcubeko yorhulumente waseMelika ivumela ulwahluko olunzulu, ukukwazi ukwenza amaphondo asebenze njengeeprojekthi zenkqubo yokuphucula inkqubo kunye nokubonakalisa amaxabiso ahlukeneyo oluntu lwabo. Abahlali bahlala phantsi kwesiseko esisemthethweni esisungulwe, esixhaswayo, kwaye sinyanzelwa ngurhulumente wabo. Ukuqonda ububanzi nobunzulu bala mandla kuyimfuneko ekuqondeni ulawulo lweMerika kunye nokuthatha inxaxheba kwinkqubo yezopolitiki, njengoko izigqibo ezininzi ezichaphazela ubomi babo zisoloko zingenziwangachatshazelwanga kwiWashington, DC. kodwa, kwiiyure ezimbalwa zesakhiwo semo.