Isiseko Sembali Sokungavisisani Kolawulo Olusebukhosini

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela kwe-odomistism, esekelwe kwisandi se- kwiparem engeyo-habet imperium (elinganayo ayinawo amandla okulingana), yavela kwizithethe ze-absolitist zolawulo lwaseYurophu. Kwimo yayo yamandulo, imfundiso ekhuselwe kumatyala asemzini njengendlela yokubonisa intlonelo kunye nokulingana phakathi kwabaphathi. Inkundla ephakamileyo yawuchaza kakuhle lo mgaqo iS' i-Screat Exchange v. M'Flavention's's': [1812], iphethe ukuba iinkosi zangaphandle zazingamalungu azimeleyo kwigunya laseMelika ngokusetyenziswa yi-radiom-eternety. Kwiindex yenkulungwane ye-19, isebenza njenge-edemodentili, i-edentinga ye-edentinga, inika umsebenzi wokhuseleko kumthetho-onke.

Ukuguqulwa kokhuseleko olupheleleyo lokukhusela ukunqanda ukuthintelwa okungqongqo kukhawuleze emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II, iqhutywa kukubandakanyeka okungakumbi kwezorhwebo kwelizwe. UMthetho we-Immunies (FSIA) kaMatike Angaphandle kwe-U.IImmon Act (FS) yasebenzisa le ndlela ingqongqo, ikhulula ihambo yezorhwebo kwizokhuseleko ngoxa ikhusela izenzo zikawonke wonke. Iinkqubo ezifanayo zomthetho zavela kulo lonke elaseYurophu nelase-Asia, zibonakalisa ukuvumelana okuthi ukusebenza njengezangaphandle akumele kuxhamkelwe ukuxhamla ukuxhathisa okungachaphazelelwe. Kodwa ezi zixhobo zathetha oku kuncinane ngokuchaphazelelwa kwamalungelo abantu, zidala ukuzama ukuzalisekisa inzala yemithetho.

Ukunyuka Kwamalungelo Abantu Ezizwe Ngezizwe

Inguquko yamalungelo abantu yasemva konyaka ka1945 yaguqula ngokusisiseko ulawulo lomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe. Ngokumkelwa kwe Isibhengezo somanyano samalungelo abantu ngo-1948, ichaza ngokusemthethweni ukuba abantu babenamalungelo agqithayo kwimida yesizwe. Izivumelwano zenza izivumelwano ```isivumelwano sezizwe nge-Prevaneva, iiNdibano zeGeneva, kunye neConvention Against Corantrrection, kunye neembopheleleko ezibophayo zokukhusela, ukuchosa, kunye nokulungisa ukusetyenziswa kwamangcwaba. Ezi zixhobo zasungula ingcamango ye- cognotes : izicwangciso ezithisolulo zomthetho wezizwe zonke ezingekho kunikezelo lwezomthetho, kuquka nolwahlulo lobugqiyo, ukuqukulwa kobugqiyo, kunye nobugqisho.

Iinkundla zezaphuli-mthetho zamazwe ngamazwe zinyusa ezi zindululo. Iityala zeNuremberg zaqinisekisa ukuba abantu banokubekwa ityala lolwaphulo-mthetho ngezenzo ezisenziwa phantsi kombala wegunya likarhulumente, ukugqobhoza isigqubuthelo solawulo. Inkundla yeInternational Criminal Court , emiswe yiRome Signagmentte ngo1998, igxininisa ngokubhekele phandle ukuphek'ityala komntu ngamnye kwibala lomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe. Ezi ziquluvo zoquluvo zazingachazi zithetha ngqo ngempahla ezichaphazameli ngokuchasene namazwe, kodwa zadala iimfanelo zokuwiswa kwamalungelo abantu zijongwe njenge-hierdrarchy ephezulu kwimfundiso yesithethe yokhuseleko lombuso.

Imibutho yamalungelo abantu kunye nabaphengululi abasemthethweni baphikisa ngelithi ukunikwa kwemiqathango etyholwa ukuthuthunjiswa okanye ukubulawa kwabantu ngokugqithisileyo kwala mayeza akhatywayo ngokunempumelelo, oku kuphumela ekungqubaniseni kwaloo njongo yomthetho wamalungelo abantu. Oku kuxhathisana phakathi kokulingana ngokuphezulu nokusesikweni kwaba yeyona ngxaki kukhuselo lwezono lwexesha.

Impikiswano Engoonobumba Be Jus

Olunalwazi lunamandla lwemfundiso yezemfundo kwisiseko sokhuseleko lokuziphatha luye lwavela kwingcamango ye jus cogens. Abaxhasi baphikisa ukuba imigaqo yokuzithethelela, ngokwenkcazelo, isusa nawuphi na umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe, kuquka imithetho ephikisanayo yokuthintelwa kwesizwe. Ukuba ukuthuthukiswa kunqandwe ngokupheleleyo, banokuqiqa, akukho rhulumente unokuthiya ukukhuselwa kwesukelo lwesizwe oluvela kwintuthumbo. Inkundla yehlabathi lonke ethetha ngale mpikiswano [FT:2] Juridictiveal Ijunicanmental Isquatial Imnoids State (Itali v.)[FLT:] [2017], ebambe ukuba akukho migaqo yemithetho esebenzayo kwi-ekhompyusa-messs, i-proctanctives. I-JJ igqiza i-ethout engenzi mpikiswano ngemithetho egqwethactive engomnye ngenxa yokuba igqwethancel.

UMthetho oPhambili weNkqutyana kunye noPhuhliso lweNkqutyana

Iinkundla zamakhaya ziye zazama ukuphendula le mibuzo kangangamashumi eminyaka, nto leyo eye yabangela ukuba kubekho imiqathango eyahlukeneyo kodwa eyaya ibethana ngolwahlulo.

Imithetho Yesithoba Nesiminxi Esisetyenziswa EAlien

EUnited States, isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo [[FLT: 0] i-Alien Tort Sigment[[FT:1] [i-FLT] (1789] sanika isiseko solawulo lwezizwe zasemzini ukuqukumbela ukuphula umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe. Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain[[FULT] [206]] [206]) yaqonda ukuba intengo ye-ATS ingaqhubeka phantsi kwemigangatho encinane yemithetho yomhlaba wonke eyamkelekileyo. Ukuchasa amagosa asemzini namaqela ahlukeneyo ahlukeneyo avelisa iziphumo. [[FLT] [FLT] kunye nemithetho edityanithene.[4] Ityala elininzi [i-Umthetho-ogromes] i-unitempty.[5]

Phezu kwayo nje le miqobo, amalungelo abantu ahlukeneyo nenkqubo yokuzikhusela kwimikhosi yabalawuli asinda kwimo elinganiselweyo. Ukungahambelani kobugrogrisi kweFSIA, okwamiselwa ngo-1996 kwaza kwanwenwa ngo-2008, kuvumela iisuti ezichasene namazwe amiselwe njengoorhulumente abaxhasa ubugrogrisi ngezenzo zokuthuthumbisa, ukubulala okugqithiseleyo, nokubulala abantu abathinjiweyo. Oku kucalula umgwebo wezobupolitika othi amanye amazwe aphulukane nokhuselo lwawo ngenxa yokwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu ngendlela ecwangcisiweyo.

Iinkundla ZaseYurophu Nemiqathango Ethintelweyo

Imithetho ye-yuntara yaseYurophu (2001) ayizange ivume ukunqanda ukukhusela ukukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu namalungelo abantu. Inkundla yaseYurophu yamaLungelo oluntu [ku-] Al-Adsani v. UBukumkani boMbuso [2001] abuzange ivume ukukhusela ukukhusela ityala lentuthumbo, ijongene nesithethe sesithethe. Noko ke, iNkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yaseItali ku-[FLT] [FLT] ku-[FLT]] u-Deciontion. 238. (20] waluvavanya ngqo ugqaliselo lwe-ICJ juristial Immian Immian, iphethe ukuba iinkundla zetyala zase-Itali zinokuthetha ngokuchasene ne-WI yezenzo zamalungelo aqhelekileyo amaqela ehlabathi lonke.

Iinkundla zamaGrike zatyhalela imida ngendlela efanayo. Margellos v. Federal Republic yaseJamani (2002], iNkundla ePhakamileyo yamaGrike ekuqaleni yakhanyelwa ukukhusela ukukhusela ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe yamaNazi, kuphela ukuba itshitshiswe yiNkundla ePhakamileyo kwiZiko eliPhakamileyo kwiprocessical Court. Inkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yeJamani ithathe indlela engqongqo ngakumbi, iqinisekisa ukukhusela ukukhusela ukuxhathisa kwana namatyala anzulu abandakanya ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu, ukuba ibone ukuba kukho ezinye iindlela zokunyanga.

Iminikelo yaseMzantsi Merika neyoMzantsi Osehlabathini Lonke

Iinkundla ezikwi-Global South ziye zaququzelela ngokukhulayo le mibuzo, ngokufuthi ngokwembono ebeka amalungelo abantu kwindawo yokuqala kunolawulo lwesithethe. Inkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yaseColombia, kwi Decision C- 728 (2011]), ikholelwa ukuba ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu okunzulu kungenza ukwahlulwa okufanelekileyo kokukhusela urhulumente, ingakumbi apho amaxhoba ebengasayi kuba nendlela yokulungisa indlela. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yase-Argentina ivuselele iintambo nxamnye namazwe angaphandle ngenxa yolwaphulo-mthetho nxamnye noluntu, isebenzisa amava embali embali kunye nokugweba. Ezi zigqibo zibonakalisa ukuqwalasela phambili kokuthiswa kwemfundiso ephakamileyo yokuzikhusela imilinganiselo yabantu, ingakumbi kwiindawo apho ugonyamelo lubangele khona ugonyamelo.

Ubuchule Bokulwa Nowokuxolelwa

Uxanduva phakathi kolawulo namalungelo abantu alubangelwa nje ziimfundiso; lunentsingiselo ecacileyo yonxibelelwano, ulwalamano norhulumente kunye nembuyekezo yamaxhoba.

Ukhuseleko lwePromatic kunye noLawulo-luye-kwiSizwe

Xa iinkundla zasekuhlaleni zingavumi ukuva amatyala amalungelo abantu nxamnye namazwana asemzini, amaxhoba angabhenela ekukhuseleni kwezobuzwe: urhulumente wawo uxhasa ityala ngemijelo yolawulo. Le nkqubo, eqashelwa yi-ICJ, ilondoloza ukukhusela ukulawulwa kolawulo ngelinye ixesha inika unyango olunokwenzeka. Noko ke, ibeka isigqibo sokuzifunela ngokupheleleyo ityala ezandleni zikarhulumente wexhoba, nto leyo enokuthi ingavumi ukwenza isenzo sezopolitiko. I-International Law Commission’s Dirapt on Diplomatic Protection (2006) incomela ukuba kuqwalaselwe ukukwazi ukuqhelisa ukukhusela kobuchule bokunxibelela, ingakumbi apho ingozi enkulu isenzekile, kodwa akukho mbopheleleko ebophekayo.

Isivumelwano- Esisekelwe Kumahluko

Amanye amaphondo aye angena kwizivumelwano ze-biverdate okanye ezininzi ezilawulayo ezilungisa ukhuseleko oluphezulu kumbandela wamalungelo abantu. IConvention yeZizwe ezihlangeneyo kwi Jurisdical Immunical Imagementes nempahla Yawo [2004], ngelixesha ingakasebenzi, ibandakanya umahluko worhwebo kwiQumrhu 10 kodwa ngokuphawulekayo ishiya amalungelo abantu ahlukeneyo. INdibano yeNgqungquthela ityhila amaqela achukumileyo phakathi kwamazwe axhasa ukhuseleko olubanzi kunye nabo bakhuthaza ukuchasana okungalawulekiyo kwamalungelo abantu. Oku kubonisa ukuchasana okuqhubekayo kwenkupho kwicandelo eli-10 elikwinani elithe kratya.

Enye Izixhobo Zokusebenzisa Umatshini

Ecatshukiswe yimiqobo yezahlulelo, amanye amaphondo amisele iindlela zolawulo zokuhlawula ukuthetha ngokuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu ngokwembali. IBhunga leJamani "Remembrance, Ityala nePhondo" linikezele kwimbuyekezo kwabasebenzi ababenyanzelekile ngexesha lobuNazi, ukubeka izityholo zokuba ngenye indlela bezinokuvavanya ukukhuselwa kolawulo oluphezulu lwemithetho emininzi. I-Italy yaseka iNgxoxoxoka yamaxhoba emfazweni eMbindini ukuhlawulela amaxhoba ezenzo zenkohlakalo zamaNazi emva kokuba i-ICCCY igqibile yalawula i-Imdictivation Imdiation I . Ezi ndlela zokuzizo, nangona ingafezekanga, ibonisa ukuba izisombululo zikho ngaphandle kwe-komiti ye-mthetho, ukuba zibonelela ityala.

Iimbambano Zexesha Elizayo Nemigaqo Yexesha Elizayo

Umthetho wokuzikhusela kwimizi - mveliso namalungelo abantu awukaconjululwa.

Imeko ye Trorrism ephikisayo

I-Pft-9/11 i-ligion inyuse umahluko wobugrogrisi, ingakumbi e-United States nase Canada. IJaji Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA) (2016 ivumele iisuti zilwe namazwe angaphandle ngezenzo zobugrogrisi ezenzeka eUnited States, ezilawula ukhuseleko oluphezulu kwiimeko ezithile. Lo mthetho wadala impikiswano ebalulekileyo, ngokulumkisa koorhulumente bamazwe angaphandle ukuba ingaphazamisa ulwalamano lwezizwe ngezizwe kwaye ijongene nezolawulo. Saudi Arabia yajamelana neenkundla ezininzi phantsi kolawulo lwe-JATA elthta ekubandakanyekileyo kwimiliselo eziphakathi kwe-9/11. Ezi meko ziphakamisa imibuzo enzulu malunga nemiqatha yemithetho elawula inkundla ethetha nendima efanelekileyo yezobugrobisotho-ogrogrisi.

Imbopheleleko Nengxaki

Amalungelo abantu athe athe ancedwa ukuba asebenze okanye angenelwe kukuphathwa kakubi kwamalungelo abantu. I-Doe v. U-UFLT (2002] ityala eUnited States kunye ] nezibonelelo zeVedantans plc v. Lungenise [[FLT]] [2029]) kuMagunya eUnited Kingdom limisele ukuba iinkampani ezikhulisa abazali zinokuba nembopheleleko yenkathalo kubantu ngabanye abachaphazelekayo ekuchaphathweni kwamalungelo abantu. Ngexesha lale meko azivavameli ulawulo oluthe ngqo, azilufuni ukulawulwa, zihamba ngemibutho ephakathi elungele ukuthotywa kwemithetho engundoqo ye-Europe.

Ukungahambelani kwamagosa karhulumente neeNtloko zikaRhulumente

Umbuzo onxulumeneyo kodwa owahlukileyo unxulumene nokugonywa kwamagosa karhulumente, ````Orct1] (2002] wakholelwa ukuba abalungiseleli bamanye amazwe bafumana ukhuseleko olupheleleyo kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho nakulawulo lwabemi bangaphandle. [i-Arrest Warrant Warrant (iDemocratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium)[FLD] [2001] [iiiiiiiiiimeko yokuba abalungiseleli bamanye amazwe balapho bafumana ukhuseleko olupheleleyo kwityala lolwaphulo-mthetho emanye amazwe, kwanakuba umangalelwa kwezomthetho emfazweni. Noko ke, umgwebo washiya uvulo lwetyala kwiinkundla zezizwe zonke okanye emva kweofisi ye-ofisi ye-Romet. Umthetho owenziwe phantsi kwegunya eliphakamileyo leRome. [FG.2] Ityala lakwakhothoba phantsi kwesigqibo somthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe alwayo.

Umahluko wezobuGcisa oPhakathi

Amalungelo abantu achasene nokhuseleko olulawulayo aye akhula ngendlela engafaniyo kwimimandla eyahlukahlukeneyo, ebonisa izithethe ezingokwasemthethweni, amava embali neemeko zezobupolitika.

EYurophu: Indlu Eyahluleleneyo

Amaphondo aseYurophu ahlala ahlulelene phakathi kwabo babambelele kumthetho wokhuseleko olungqongqo (iJamani, i-United Kingdom) kunye nabo bamkela ii-asethi (i-Itali, iGrisi, kunye, ngenqanaba elincinane, iPoland neSlovenia). I-European Union ayikhange ithethe ngqo kwimidibaniso yamalungelo abantu, ishiya amazwe ukuba ahambe kweli lizwe esebenzisa umthetho wesizwe kunye notoliko lwezomthetho wezomthetho wezomthetho. IBhunga leYurophu kwiBhunga laseRhulumente Immunity (1972) alithethi ngamalungelo abantu, nangona iNkundla yaseYurophu yamaLungelo ibonise ukuba kumele ukukhuselwa kwelungelo apho ukuphulwa kwelungelo likhoyo.

UMntla Merika: Ubugrogrisi Nesiko Elingafaniyo

I-United States neKhanada ziye zandisa ukunqanda ukunqanda ukukhusela ukunqongophala kweemeko ngokuyintloko ngokusetyenziswa komthetho ojonge abaxhasi bezobugrogrisi. UMthetho we-Immunyy yaseKhanada walungiswa ngo-2012 ukuze kuqaliswe ubugrogrisi, unceda amaxhoba ukuba adweliswe njengeemeko zobugrogrisi. Omabini amazwe agcina indlela engqongqo ngakumbi yokukhusela ukuthintelwa kwemeko yezorhwebo kodwa akrotle amalungelo abantu akhethekileyo ngaphandle kweenkqubo zezobupolitika kunokuba agwebe. Lo mgaqo ubonisa ukulala: iinkundla zithobela imigaqo yezolawulo yemiqathango yamazwe angaphandle, ngoxa iindlu zowiso-mthetho ziphendula ekufuneni uxanduva.

EAsia NaseAfrika: Isivumelwano Esimanyeneyo

Iinkundla zase-Asia nase-Afrika ziqalisa ukubandakanyeka kule mibuzo, ngokufuthi iphenjelelwa luphuhliso lomthetho wezizwe ngezizwe. Inkundla yezomGaqo-siseko yaseMzantsi Afrika, Igunya leRiphabliki yaseMzantsi Afrika v.Von Abon, iqashelwe ukuba umthetho wehlabathi lonke oqhelekileyo wokuthintela ukunqanda unokuba nengozi yokufumana amalungelo abantu. Noko ke, inkundla yeIndiya ePhakamileyo kwiNkundla ePhakathi i-Union ye-Indiya. Aza Bakaola Ando Andoollan[[[[FLT:]] [2003] [i3]) iyavuma ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho yezizwe ngezizwe ekuchazeni amalungelo abantu ahlukeneyo, ibonakalisa ukuqanda kwemiqatha kwemiqatha yemiqatha yemiqathango ye-Afrika, ithetha ngakumbi ukuqhuba amalungelo awo athelela phambili ekuchazeni amalungelo abo.

Isiphelo

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni kwelizwe iguquka ngokunzulu. Oko kwakukhe kwaba yikhaka elipheleleyo elikhuselayo, eliphantsi kokungachatshazelwa ngokusemthethweni, ngesivumelwano, nangenkcazelo egwebayo. Ukuvela kwemigaqo yamalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke akukhange kukuphelise ukukhusela ulawulo oluzimeleyo, kodwa kuye kwanyanzelisa iinkundla, abenzi bemithetho, nabaphengululi ukujamelana nemibuzo engathandekiyo ngolwalamano phakathi kolawulo lukarhulumente nobulungisa.

Isigqibo se-ICJ's Juristional Immunitunies (IJamani v. Italy) saqinisekisa ukuba akukho kukhetha amalungelo abantu jikelele phantsi komthetho wesithethe wezizwe ngezizwe. Noko ke, umgwebo awuzange uluvale ukuba kungenzeka ukuba amazwe angenza, ngesivumelwano okanye umthetho wasekhaya, abangele ukungavumelani okunjalo. Okungakumbi, isigqibo asizange simise incoko eqhelekileyo: abaxhasi bamalungelo abantu bayaqhubeka becinezela ukuphosa ukuba imiyalelo yokuzimela izithethe ezimele ziphosamele kwimithetho esesikweni. Iinkundla zasekhaya zisebenza ngokungakumbi njengeekhothathi-mfatha esemthethweni, zivavanya imiqathango yokuzikhusela ukukhusela ukukhusela ulwaphulo-mthetho, zivavanya imiqatha kwemeko ezibandakanya ulwaphulo-mthetho onzulu lwamazwe ngamazwe ngamazwe.

Kubenzi-mthetho nabenzi beenkqubo, ukuqhuba eli lizwe kufuna ukuqonda okuchanekileyo komthetho osebenzayo kwigunya ngalinye. Umbuzo ngukuba ngaba imigaqo yamalungelo abantu ayisayi kuchaphazela ukukhusela ulawulo oluphezulu / zenziwa, kwaye inzulu. Umbuzo ngulokuba kuxolelwaniswa kwamaxabiso amabini asisiseko: uzuko lorhulumente kunye nokunyanzeleka kokuziphendulela ekuphulweni kwamalungelo abantu amangcwaba. Akukho mpendulo inye izakuvela, kwaye akukho nanye enokuthi yanelise ngokupheleleyo bonke abaxhasi bemiqathango. Okucacileyo kukuba imfundiso yokhuseleko lolawulo lobukhosi iye yangalawulwa ngokupheleleyo ngumthetho wamalungelo abantu, kwaye umhlaba osemthethweni uya kuqhubeka utshintsha njengemibagqaliselo emitsha, izivumelwano emitsha, nemigunya emitsha yezobupolitika.

Ukuze ufunde ngokubhekele phaya ngendaleko yezokhuseleko oluphezulu namalungelo abantu, bona [[FLT: 0] Juristional Ijunication Isqualition of the State (jalamani v. Italy) Umgwebo , iConvention ye-Juriscialition Immunitial Immunition [, kunye nohlaziyo lweMelika yoMthetho wezizwe ngezizwe [[[FLT:]]] kunye nolwezihlolo olukhoyo lokhuselo lwezizwe ngelingexesha elinye. Ukuqonda ezi zibalulekile kumsebenzi wobuGcisa nomthetho wamazwe ngamazwe, amalungelo abantu, kunye noluntu.