Ingcamango Yokuqala: Imfundiso Yonqulo Engaqondakaliyo

Igama elithi “ubuqali” liquka intsapho yeendlela zokutolika kunemfundiso enye, ekwindlela yokutshixa. Embilinini, isiseko sobukho bento sixhasa ukuba intsingiselo yombhalo womgaqo-siseko yayimiswe ngexesha ilungiselelo ngalinye livunyiwe. Kodwa ngaphakathi kwentente ebanzi, amasebe amabini aphambili avele: [ injongo yokuqala kunye nentsingiselo yantlalo kawonke-wonke-wonke yentsingiselo.

[[FLT: 0] Injongo ecacileyo . inxulunyaniswe ngamanani afana no Attorney Edwin Meese III ngo 1980, ibuza oko amaFramers ngokwawo ngokubhekiselele kwibinzana elithenjiweyo. Abagxeki bakhawuleza bachaza ingxaki yokudibanisela phambili iinjongo ezininzi zabathunywa, abaninzi babo abashiye iingxelo ezimbalwa. Oku kukhokelela kwintsingiselo yengingqi yenginyayo [[FLT:] yento ecacileyo yentsingiselo yengingqi yengingqi, enxulunyaniswa kakhulu noJaniswe noJanualgn: [[5], phantsi koku kusondeza okufanelekileyo, oko kuyinto esengqiqweni ngexesha lobalo lwendlela yokusebenza. [F] [F]

Lo mahluko ubaluleke kakhulu kumandla olawulo. Uphando lwangaphambili lungasusa iileta zabucala ezivela kuJames Madison okanye kuAlexander Hamilton ukuze lubhikishe iimbono zazo kwilungelo lomongameli. Uhlalutyo lwantlandlolo oluthetha uluntu, ngokwahlukileyo, isichazi-magama, amaphephandaba, kunye neengxelo ezingokwasemthethweni ukusuka kumawaka angamashumi asixhenxe anesixhenxe aneshumi elinesixhenxe kunye namawaka asixhenxe anamakhulu asixhenxe ukufumanisa ukuba ummi wangoko ebeya kuwaqonda njani amagama afana nothi “UMlawuli kwiNtloko,” okanye “UMlawuli kwiNtloko,”“ Ukujonga ukuba uMthetho ubulawe ngokuthembeka.

Ukwenziwa Kwegunya Elilawulayo Nokuyilwa

Inqaku II lomGaqo-siseko liqala ngesiphiwo esilula ngokukhohlisayo: “Amagunya alawulayo aza kunikwa uMongameli waseUnited States of America.” Izazi zoqobo zikudala ziphikisana ukuba lo mthombo ka-Claus unika igunya elibanzi, eliphindiweyo (ingcamango ebizwa ngokuba “sisigqeba esiphezulu”) okanye nje ichaza uMongameli njengegosa eliza kusebenzisa amandla akhankanyiweyo kamva kwinqaku.

Ukwahlukana koMgwebi Scalia uMorrison v. Olson (1988) ubonakalisa ityala lobunzululwazi begunya elibanzi. Waphikisa ngelithi umthetho ozimeleyo, owenzelwe ukumisela amandla okususwa koMongameli phezu komtshutshisi ongaphantsi, walwaphula uluvo lwantlalo lokuba “wonke amandla olawulo abekwe kuMongameli.” Scalia uthathele lo mgaqo emva koloyiko lwe-Framers lomphathi-mikhosi ebanzi njenge-Romemustrules okanye ikomiti ye-Constantivements. Intsingiselo yasekuqaleni kawonke ye-“edentix Echurentine,” waphikisa, ngokuyimfuneko waquka amandla okulula nokususa ezinye iziphathi-Prenteentesteant.[5]

Abanye abaxhasi bembali zakudala bafikelela kwisigqibo esichaseneyo. Unjingalwazi Michael Rappaport weYunivesithi yeSan Diego School of Law, ngokomzekelo, uthi intsingiselo yantlandlolo yeQumrhu II ivumela ukuba kubekho umthetho obalulekileyo wesebe elilawulayo, lo gama uMongameli egcina imisebenzi engundoqo efana namandla kunye nomyalelo womkhosi. Umbhalo, isakhiwo, nembali, uthi, ayigunyazi igosa eliphethe icandelo elilawulayo.

Inyameko KaClaus Njengomntu Ofunda Imvelaphi Yangaphambili

IThe Take Care Claus(*) uMongameli “uya kukukukhathalele ukuba iMithetho ibulawe ngokuthembekileyo”=yenye indawo yokulwa yemfazwe yokuqala. Ngethuba lokuvavanywa kwetyala likaMongameli uBill Clinton, abalandeli bokuqala baphikisanayo ukuba ngaba“ ngokuthembeka kufelwe u-"wathetha umsebenzi wonyanzelo olunyanisekileyo okanye wanika uMongameli ingqiqo yokuba alibazise okanye angayihoyi imithetho ayigqala njengengamelenga mithetho. Umthetho ozimeleyo, ujikijekile kumthetho we- uMorrison , wayesele ebonise indlela uSocio nengqondo yangaphambili enokuthi ikwazi ngayo ukunqumla zombini iindlela.

Kutshanje, abaphengululi bendalo baye bahlolisisa isiNgesi sikaClaus kunye nobuGqr. Bakhomba kwimpikiswano yonyaka ka-1790 kuMongameli Washington yokuvakalisa kobundilele kwimfazwe phakathi kweFransi ne-Great Britain. Ingxoxo ka- “Pacificus-Helvidius” phakathi ko-Aleksand Hamilton (owabhalwa njenge-Pasifiki) noJames Macon (obhalwe njengoHelvidius) wathetha ngqo ngentsingiselo yokuqala yegunya lolawulo. Hamilton waphikisa igunya elibanzi lokuqhuba imicimbi yamazwe angaphandle; uMadison wanyanzelela kuphela apho umGaqo-siseko ogunyazisa igunya. Abagwebi kunye nabahlazi-mkeli basakucelela le mvume ukuxhasa iingcamango zokusungula umongameli owe-One-Onegatori.

Uphawu Lwetyala NgeeLens Zamandulo

Iphepha le Tube Co v. Sawyer (1952) – Ityala le Steel Seizere

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo 6-3 sokubetha umthetho olawulayo kaMongameli Truman wokuthatha izigalo zentsimbi ngexesha lemfazwe yaseKorea sisixhobo sokulinganisa esiqhelekileyo. Uluvo lweJaji iHugo Black luthathe imigaqo-siseko, ukufikelela kokubhaliweyo: uMongameli wayengenagunya lomgaqo-siseko okanye lomthetho wokuthatha izinto zabucala, kwaye uMthetho kaTaft-Hartley wanika olunye unyango olusemthethweni. Uluvo lobumnyama aluzange lusebenzise igama loqobo, kodwa lwabonisa ukuba ukuzinikela kobuGqhinga kwasekuqaleni ukubeka umda, amandla adweliswe.

Umthetho kaJaji Robert Jackson, ngoko, wasungula isakhiwo esine-trarte esenziwe ngoku-artite (ekwinqanaba eliphezulu, elimnyama, okanye eliphantsi kakhulu kwamandla) esiye sangqinelana nokuhlala ixesha elide. Iingcali zobuko lokwakha zisoloko zincoma uhlalutyo lukaJackson, olusindululo sobumongameli kwimibhalo kunye nolwalamano lomntu ohlala phakathi kwe-branch, kwananjengoko begxeka icebiso lakhe lokuba ingxolo yengqungquthela inganwelandisa ngokupheleleyo igunya lolawulo lwempathi.

IUnited States v. Nixon (1974) – Imida Yelungelo Elilawulayo

Isigqibo esiyelelanisiweyo esiyalela uMongameli Nixon ukuba avelise iikhasethi zeWatergate ngokwengxenye sisekelwe kumgaqo wokuba akukho mntu, kwanoMongameli, ongaphezulu komthetho. Uluvo lweJaji enkulu uBurger lwavuma ilungelo lokulawula elipheleleyo lokufumana iimfihlelo zemikhosi kunye nezobugcisa .[1] ilungelo awalibekayo ekwahluleni amagunya . Kodwa wakholelwa ukuba imfuneko eqhelekileyo yokufihla imfihlo ayinakodlula iimfuno ezingundoqo zenkqubo efanelekileyo kunye nesigwebo solwaphulo-mthetho.

Abahlalutyi boqobo baye bakhusela le miphumo njengengqinelana nokuchaswa kwelungelo lobukumkani besizukulwana sokusekwa. Baphawula ukuba abaFrame ngokucacileyo bakhetha ukushiya kwiQumrhu II naliphi na icebiso lokuba uMongameli anokuthi angabufaki ubungqina kwiinkqubo zomthetho. UNixon[[FL:1] isigqibo, ngenxa yale mbono, ngokuthembeka basebenzisa intsingiselo yokuqala kawonke-wonke-wonke yembopheleleko kaMongameli yokuba “kungaphindiswa uMthetho ngokuthembeka."

ITrump v. Hawaii (2088) – ISigwebo Sohambo

Mhlawumbi eyona ngxoxo ibalulekileyo yezobungangamsha kwingxoxo yamagunya aphezulu kutshanje yavela kucelomngeni kuMongameli Trump ukuvalwa kohambo. Urhulumente wasithethelela esi sibhengezo njengokusetyenziswa okusemthethweni kwegunya lomongameli elibanzi kulawulo lomntu ofudukayo nokhuseleko lwesizwe, ecaphula eUnited States ex exprrel. Knauffy v. Shauffy[FLD] [1950] kunye “namandla asemthethweni” imfundiso ekwi-Exclus Case (1%) ekwisigxina. Abagxeki baphikisa ukuba ukuvalwa komthetho ka Claus kwaye bagqithisile nakuphi na ukuqonda kwasekuqaleni kwegunya eliphezulu.

UJaji Thomas, obekuqukunjelwa, wanikela uhlalutyo olunamandla lwemvelaphi yokuqala. Waphikisa ngelithi igunya likaMongameli lokumisa ukungena kwabaphambukeli “ngokungagqibekanga” phantsi kwentsingiselo yantlandlolo yeGatya II kunye noMthetho wokuTshamisa wewaka linamakhulu asixhenxe anamakhulu asixhenxe anamashumi asibhozo. IJaji Sotomayotor, engavumelaniyo, impikiswano ephikisanayo nempikiswano ephikisayo yemvelaphi: amava okusekwa kweemvavanyo zonqulo nezifungo zabonisa ukuba ukumiswa kukaClausle kwakwa kwasemthethweni okungavumelani nocalucalucalucalulo olusekelwe kunqulo, kungakhathaliseki oko kuthethwa ngumo lwendalo. Imeko ibonisa ukuba ulawulo oluphezulu oluphezulu alwakhe lwazinzi; indlela yokucacisa iziphumo ezibangela ukuthandwa kwamacala omabini, ngokuxhomekeke kwimbali nakwilungelo elinye.

Ukuqala Kurhulumente Wolawulo

Enye yezona zicelo zilandelayo zengqiqo yoqobo kumandla olawulo oluphezulu ibandakanya uthungelwano oluthe chatha lwamaziko alawulayo asebenzisa imithetho, impatho-mthetho, kunye nemisebenzi yokugweba. I-Exchange idla ngokuphikisa ngelithi iinkqubo zeNew Deal kunye neGreat Society zakha “isebe lesine” likarhulumente apho umbhalo nesakhiwo somGaqo-siseko singabonakali. imfundiso yokwabela imigaqo-mthetho [, ethintela iBhunga lokudlulisela igunya layo lowiso-mthetho kumphathi, ibisoloko ijoliswe ngqo.

Gundy v. United States (2029), iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaqwalasela ukuba umthetho wobhalisa ngesondo wesizwe wawunika urhulumente ngokungekho mthethweni amandla owiso-mthetho kwiNdlu yowiso-mthetho. IJaji Gorfo, edityaniswe yiJaji enguMonist Roberts noJaji Thomas, echatshazelwe yisigqibo soninzi sokuxhasa abathunywa. Uluvo lwakhe, olusekelwe kwintsingiselo yantlalo-wonke, lulandele umgaqo ongagunyazi-mthetho ovela kuJohn Lonke ngengxoxo yokuqalisa. Waphikisa ukuba uMgaqo-siseko ka-siseko u-Vellabel udala amagunya amathathu, ahlukeneyo kwaye “abameli abanyuliweyo kubantu abaqulukileyo kwiBhunga lomthetho kuphela.”

Ukungavumelani kweenkqubo ezinjalo kuye kwaba sisibhengezo esikhuthazayo kumalungu olawulo afuna ukubuyiselwa ngokusemthethweni komongameli ngokubekwa kwemithetho, ukugcinwa komthetho, kunye nokuqinisekiswa kwemibutho. Ukuba imfundiso engagunyaziswanga ivuselelwe, ubuchule bukaMongameli bokwalathisa amaqumrhu ukwamkela imimiselo emitsha okanye ukutshintsha iindlela zokunyanzelisa ziya kunyanzelwa ngokuphandle .

Unqulo Loqobo Nolawulo Lweqela Ngenkulungwane yama - 21

Ingcamango yesigqeba esilawulayo (UET) ithi uMongameli unegunya elilawula onke amagosa asebenzisa igunya elilawulayo, kuquka namandla okuwasusa ngokokuthanda. Izazi ngenkcubeko zisoloko zikhusela u-UET ngokukhomba ku-189 “Ulawulo luka-1789,” apho iBhunga lokuqala laliqonda ngokupheleleyo igunya lokususa kukaMongameli xa limisela amaSebe emicimbi yamazwe angaphandle, uVictory, kunye nemfazwe. UJames Masson, ngoko olilungu leNdlukwano, lathi iSimiso somGaqo-siseko sasifuna ukususwa koMongameli njengenxalenye ye-Rhulumenter'e" ebon.

Oku kungokwembali kuye kwaphikiswana ngokuphandle. Abanye abaphengululi bembali, njengoNjingalwazi uSteven Calabrasi wasemntla-ntshona, bathatha isigqibo sowewaka linamakhulu asibhozo9 njengobungqina obucacileyo bentsingiselo yantlandlolo kawonke-wonke. Abanye, njengoNjingalwazi uAdiza Bamzai weYunivesithi yaseVirginia, bachaza ukuba isigqibo saphikiswa ngexesha nokuba iiBhunga ezilandelayo ziye zadala amaqumrhu azimeleyo aneentloko ezinokusuka nje zifuneke. Impikiswano ibala libalase umngeni omkhulu wobukho bendalo: xa ingxelo yokusungula iqulethe ubungqina obuphikisanayo, yiyiphi inguqulelo yentsingiselo yokuqala emele ilawule?

Ukwenziwa Kwangaphambili Kuchasene nokulawulwa komGaqo-siseko ophilayo ngegunya elilawulayo

Eyona nto ibalulekileyo ekuqukumbeleni kobuGaqo-siseko kwimbono ephambili yamandla okubulala kukuba umbhalo womGaqo-siseko awucacanga kakhulu ukuba ungasombulula imibuzo emininzi yale mihla. Yintoni “Amandla okubulala” athetha ukuba kwixesha lokuhlola kwe-elektroniki, ukubetha kwe-drone, okanye ukuphendula okungalawulekiyo? Iingcali zendalo ziphendula ngokuthi ubukho bombhalo ngokwawo buyinxalenye yomsebenzi: abalawuli basebenzisa ngabom ulwimi olubanzi ukunika uMongameli igunya elaneleyo lokusingatha iimeko ezingalindelekilenga, ngelixa isakhiwo sivavanya amandla (aConrever, ingxolo, ukuphendula kwesasazi, ukugweba) sinikela igobo elifunekayo.

Abaxhasi bomgaqo-siseko abaphilayo, ngokwahlukileyo, baphikisa ngelithi intsingiselo yesiseko kufuneka iguquke ukuze ihlangabezane nezinto ezintsha zentlalo kunye nobugcisa. IJaji Stephen Breyer, kwincwadi yakhe Inkululeko esebenzayo, yaphikisa ukuba amandla olawulo-luphezulu kufuneka achazwe ngokulula kuqheliselo lwedemokhrasi lwangoku kunye nemfuno esebenzayo yokulawula. Umzekelo, amandla ongxamiseka kaMongameli phantsi koMthetho weNational Emerditution ka 1976, ongazange abonwe njengonobumba abavunyiweyo (ovuma ukusetyenziswa kwenkqubo yokuqala) okanye umqondiso ocacileyo onika abantu abakwiFramentis.

Izazi ngenkcazo zisoloko ziphawula ukuba abalawuli abaphilayo bomgaqo-siseko bajonga iingozi ezivumela abagwebi ukuba banyanzelise iimfuno zabo zomthetho phantsi kokuzichaza. IJaji Scalia yathi “umGaqo-siseko asilulo uxwebhu oluphilayo; ufile, ufile, ufile.” Kwimeko ezibandakanya amandla olawulo oluphezulu, iingcali zoqobo zilumkisa ukuba indlela“ ephilayo” izakuvumela uMongameli andise igunya lakhe ngokungenasiphelo, engathintelwanga yiyo nayiphi na i-ankile emiswe ngombhalo.

Uphando lweNkqutyana yeNkqutyana kunye nohlalutyo loBudala

Amandla Oomongameli

Isibhengezo sikaMongameli Trump songxamiseko lwesizwe lokuxhasa ulwakhiwo lomda welizwe savusa ingxoxo eshushu yoMgaqo-siseko weSizwe. Ngaba uMthetho we-Emerdiations, udityanisiwe nolwakhiwo lweMdabi lwemiqathango kwi 10 U.S.C. . . . . . . . . 2888, ngokungekho mgaqo-siseko, ingxele isaziso songxamiseko somthetho wemithetho yomthetho wesizwe? Abanye abachazi bobuhlanga baphikisa ukuba isindululo songxamiselo sidlule igunya lomthetho wemithetho yomthetho kwaye iBhunganiso ayinikelanga mvume ecacileyo yokuba uMongameli aphinde ahlawule imali. Abanye, njengoNjingalwazi John Yoo, bathethelela isindululo sakuqala sokuqondana nokuqonda kwemfazwe yomongameli kunye namandla kaMongameli uLincoln ngexesha likaMonganiso ngexesha lika-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke-wonke.

Inkqubo Yokuxolela Yomfundi KaBiden

Ilinge lolawulo lweBiden lokurhoxa kwityala lomfundi elimalunga namawaka asixhenxe ezigidi zee-$400 emalini phantsi koMthetho we-HEROES ka 2003 ladala ucelomngeni olukhulu lobungangamsha. Biden nj. Nebraska [2023], iNkundla ePhakamileyo (iNkundla) ePhakamileyo (iii-6/3 lamawaka ezigidi zezigidi ezingama-400 zamatyala aquka iiJaji ezihlanu zokulungisa/iityala) kunye nenkoliso yomthetho wolawulo. Uninzi, ngeSikhulu, uJajini Roberts, lwasebenzisa “imfundiso engundoqo, efuna iNgqungquthela ukuba ithethe xa ithumela igunya kwezoqoqosho okanye kwezezopolitiko. Abavukeli, kuquka uGaqo-Jaji, batyhole uninzi lwezomthetho-Gastiantsss processs.

Izazi zoqobo ziye zayincoma ngokuqhelekileyo imfundiso eyintloko njengesiseko sale mihla sokuzalwa kwakhona somgaqo wokunganikezeli. Baphikisa ngelithi isizukulwana esisunguli sifuna ukuchaza imvume yowiso-mthetho nasiphi na isenzo solawulo esiphezulu sobukhulu obunjalo, ingakumbi esibandakanya ukusetyenziswa kwezigidi zezigidi zeerandi. Abahlalutyi baphikisa ukuba le mfundiso sisixhobo esisungulwe ngokusemthethweni esingenasiseko kwintsingiselo yantlalo-ntle yasekuhlaleni kwaye ivumela abagwebi ukuba bagwebe imithetho yempatho yempatho abayithandiyo.

IRegents yeYunivesithi yaseKhalifoniya (2020)

Isigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sokuvala ulawulo lweTrump olunoluvo olwahlukileyo loLawulo lweNtloko lokufikela ebuntwaneni (DACA) sajika inkqubo yokulawula i-Administrative Procedure Act (APA), hayi inkqutho engokomGaqo-siseko. Kodwa ityala latyhila izahlulo ezinzulu zobuGqwele. UJaji Kavangaugh, kwimbono eyahlukileyo, wacebisa ukuba i-DCAScionstion yayifanelekile kwaye iNkungamele ukuba iNkundla ayifaneleki yesibini imicimbi yokugcinwa kolawulo loMongameli ngokusemthethweni. Isikhundla sokulawula ukufuduka koburhulumente sakuqala sihambisana nemithetho elawulayo kwimidathango yemithetho elawulayo. Umthetho waseMongameli uThovisiston, ngokubhekele, ngokucebisa ukuba i-DCAnce yamkele igraphini yomthetho-ogracy. Umvukelo wangaphambili ubonise ukuba abenziswanomo ongoMkhosi wakhe abenziso urhulumente uVusele uVusele uVusele uVusele

Impembelelo Yekamva YobuGcisa Bexesha Elizayo

Ngendlela engaqhelekanga yokulawula kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo equka ii-asts ezininzi ezizichazayo ``Thomas'', Gormoth, Kavanaugh, kunye noBarrett''. Ingqiqo yesiqalo iza kuqhubeka ibumba imida yegunya lomongameli. Inkundla sele ibonise umdla wayo ekulungiseni kwakhona umlinganiselo wamandla okususa, imfundiso engagunyaziswanga, kunye nemfundiso enkulu.

Kodwa ukwenziwa kombhalo wantlandlolo kujongene neengcinezelo zangaphakathi nezingaphandle. Ngaphakathi, uluntu lwangaphakathi lwaphulwa ngokubhekiselele kukwamkela “iindlela zantlandlolo” (eziquka ukuqiqa kwantlandlolo-mthetho) okanye“ ukubhalwa kwemibhalo” okugxininisa ngokufutshane kwintsingiselo ye-semantic. Ngaphandle koko, abahlalutyi babonisa ubunzima bokusebenzisa umlinganiselo wamandla olawulo kwimo yokulawula yenkulungwane yama-18, kwaye bacinga ukuba abalawuli bokuqala bakhetha ubungqina obucacileyo bembali ukuxhasa iziphumo ezimiselwe kwangaphambili.

Qwalasela impikiswano ngamaziko azimeleyo. Abanye abaququzeleli bempikisano bathi intsingiselo yokuqala yeQumrhu II iyalathisa nawuphi na umbutho ozimeleyo ontloko yawo ingenakususwa ngoko kuthanda kukaMongameli. Abanye baphikisa ngelithi isigqibo sowe-1789 sowewaka liwaka linye sididane kwaye iSigqibo sowe-1789 sisemgangathweni kwaye iSizukulwana sokusekwa sinyamezele ezinye iintlobo zokuzimela (njengeBhange lokuqala eUnited States, abalawuli bayo abasebenzisa iimbono ezizinzileyo). Le ngxoxo ineziphumo eziluncedo kwiFederal Reserveation, i-Secturants and Exchange Commission, kunye neFederal Tradentity , + zonke zeNkundlalo zenza umGwaradiso-omatiswano-omatisi-oti yezo-od siseko somgaqo-ogractivel i-odt) ezinokulungiswa ngomgaqo-ogqesho olusemthethweni ukuba imbono oluqinileyolwayolwayokuba inyanisile i

Intetho yesigqeba esilawulayo kunye namandla okususa

Amandla okususa ahlala ekwindawo yedabi elisembindini. Isithuthi seNgxowa-mali yeQumrhu likawonke-wonke ephendula ibhodi engaphezulu (2010), iNkundla yabetha isilayishi samacala amabini ukwenzela ukukhusela amalungu ebhodi yengxelo, ibambe ukuba uMongameli makabe nolawulo olwaneleyo kubaphathi besebe abaphezulu. Uluvo lukarhulumente omkhulu uRoberts luxhomekeke kakhulu kwimithombo yokuqala, kuquka iProfest Literastian Papers kunye nengxoxo yowe-1789. Umvanononononono lomahluko, nocalucalulo olucelwe yiPrecel-New Accorence kunye nokuqiqa koluko olusebenzayo.

Kutshanje, Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau [2020], iNkundla yandisa loo ngqiqo yokuphelisa ukususwa komphathi omnye weCFPB. UMahluleli omkhulu uRoberts kwakhona wabhalela uninzi lwemithetho, echaza ukuba uMongameli unika uMongameli “amandla okususa” kubaphathi abakhulu, ngaphandle kwamalungu eekhomishini emininzi eneziseke ezisithintelo ezisikelweyo zokususa. Uluvo lwangaphambili lokuyila uqheliselo, imimiselo, nokuqonda okungokwembali okuthenjiweyo kokunyamekela uClal Claus Crea, uGensburg, uKagan uGener, uSoorcer, kunye noSoormall, i-CFodgnote, imogracrac, imothe imothe imbali yathetha ngobungqina obuninzi.

Ezi zigqibo zibonisa ukuba ubuGqirha asiyonto nje ethethwayo; bulawula ngokuthe ngqo umlinganiselo wokulawula uMongameli anokuwusebenzisa kwisebe eliphetheyo. Ukuba iNkundla iyaqhubeka ihamba kule ndlela, ingayilungisa kwakhona yonke i-rhulumente karhulumente, inikel ’ ingqalelo ngamandla angakumbi kwiWhite House (okanye, ngokudidanisayo, ithintela amandla omphathi okwenza izinto ngamaqumrhu anenjongo yokuzimela.

Ukuqala Kwalo Namazwe Asemzini: Ummandla Ongacaciyo

Uhlalutyo lwantlandlolo lwemicimbi yamanye amazwe luphikiswa ngokukhethekileyo ngenxa yokuba uMgaqo-siseko uthi awuthethi nto ingako ngothethanga ngeendlela zothethano, ukwenza isivumelwano, kunye nehambo yemfazwe. Inqaku II lifaka uMongameli kunye “namandla okubulala” kwaye limenza abe nguMlawuli kwiNtloko, kodwa alicaluli mithetho jikelele yamanye amazwe. Okwangoku, i-Claus neMgaqo-siseko unika ingcebiso elinobuchule “bokwenza yonke imithetho ezakuba yimfuneko kwaye ifanele ukuthwala ukuphunyezwa kwamandla angaphezulu, kunye nawo onke amanye Amandla abekwe nguRhulumente kuRhulumente waseUnited States, okanye nakweliphi iSebe okanye kwisebe.[3] I-Propolateins. Ngoku, i-presidenti ithetha ukuba lo proseliswanoba u-Genebango-Genethiwelitelse, njengoko ithetha indima enkulu kwimicimbi yamanye amazwe [F.]

Uluvo lukaSutherland . olusuka kwintetho kaJohn Marshall kunye nengcamango “yobuzwilakhe bokulawula urhulumente"" iye yagxekwa ngokujikelezayo ngabalawuli bezi mini ngokuyila inkxaso yembali. ICurtiss-right [, iNkundla ixhase abathunywa begunya kuMongameli ukunqanda ukuthengiswa kwezixhobo kumazwe alwayo, kodwa iSutherland iqhubekele phambili kwaye icebisa ukuba amagunya kaMongameli entlanga awaphelelanga kumalungu adweli kumGaqonga. Jackson, [FLT:] [FLT] [12] ulutsha], uluthiyala loo mbono, isithiyayayayayayayayayayayayayayaya “imfundiso esisiseko yegunya lombuso."

Indlela abaqulunqi abacombulula ngayo le ngxoxo iza kumisela ukufaneleka komGaqo-siseko kwezivumelwano ezifana nomthetho-siseko we-Iran wolwakhiwo lwenyukliya, izivumelwano ezilawulayo kutshintsho lwemozulu, nokusetyenziswa komkhosi nxamnye nabadlali abangengomazwe. Kukwanyusa amandla kaMongameli ukuqaphela oorhulumente basemzini, amandla athe uMongameli oPhakamileyo waqukumbela ukuba uMongameli yedwa uthethe ngeli Zivotsky [. Kerry[FLT] [[FLD] [2020].

Isiphelo: Ukwenziwa komntu wemvelo njengendawo enzima nedabi

Inkcazo yesithethe iguqule indlela iinkundla, abaphengululi, kunye noluntu ngokubanzi abacinga ngayo ngamandla aphezulu. Inika isiseko esithi simisela ukugweba ingqiqo nentlonelo kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko, ngaloo ndlela inyanzela umlawuli onegunya kunye nejaji. Kodwa njengoko amatyala neempikiswano ezingentla zibonisa, ubuStatusism abuniki mpendulo ezenzekelayo. Indlela efanayo eyasetyenziswa nguJaji Scalia ukuphikisa igunya eliphetheyo isenokuguqulwa ekubeni kufuneke ukufundwa okumxinzeleleyo kwegunya lomongameli. Impembelelo yayo ayikho kwiziphumo ezimiselwe kwangaphambili, kodwa kuxanduva nobukhulu obunika imbali, imbali, kwana ukwahlukana kwamandla.

Ikamva lobuGqaba obuphambili kumatyala alawulayo liza kuxhomekeka kunyuselo oluthe rhoqo lomsebenzi wobugcisa nowokugweba ocombulula inkqubo kwaye uyisebenzise kwimibuzo emitsha. Njengoko uMasipala Kagan waphawulayo kuye uSeila] uLawulo, “ibutho lobugcisa alinakusebenzisa unyango olulula lwenkulungwane yeshumi elinesibhozo neyeshumi elinesibhozo kwiingxaki zolawulo lwama-20%.” Abaqulunqinisi baphendula ukuba imigaqo yewaka eli-1787 ihlala iphilile, nokokuba ukusetyenziswa kwalo kuthengwa kakuhle. Ukusebenza kwalo kwasekuqaleni kugxininiswe kumthetho waseMelika. Impembelelo yalo qonga kumasebe aphakathi ee-Cescean.

Ukufunda Okungakumbi

  • Antonin Scalia, Umba oManga wokutolika: IiNkundla zoManyano kunye noMthetho (1997)[FLT]- – Umbhalo osisiseko kwintsingiselo yasekuqaleni njengoko usetyenziswa kumandla olawulo.
  • I-G. Calabrasi, “Izihlomelo zika-Claus njengo-Mandla-oo Claus,” 103 Michigan Law Review[ 1350 [2005] – Argees zesixhobo solawulo seyunithi esisekelwe kufundo lokuqala lwenqaku II.
  • Michael B. Rappaport, “Intsingiselo Yokuqala yamandla okubuyisana,” 105 IWO LAw Review [ 1453] (2020) – Imiqhubiso evumela intsingiselo yokuqala ikuvumela imida yokususwa.
  • [[FLT: 0] Adixa Bamzai & Saikrishna B. Prakash, “Ulawulo oluphezulu lonikezelo,” 136 Harvard Law Review [ 1291 [2023] – Ufundo oluqukumbelayo lokususa imbali nentsingiselo yoqobo.
  • I-Paliam Baude, “Imfundiso yakudala ngumthetho wethu?,” 115 IColumbia Law Review [[49] (2015)-------1 Ivavanya umlinganiselo wemfundiso yangoku ebonakalisa ngawo isiseko sendalo.