IBhili Yamalungelo Nempembelelo Yayo Ehlala Ihleli Kumaxwebhu Amalungelo Abantu Ezizwe Ngezizwe

IBhili yamaLungelo, eyavunywa ngowe-1791 njengenkqubo yokuqala elishumi yokulungisa umGaqo-siseko wase-U.S., yaseka inkqubo yokukhusela inkululeko yabantu nxamnye nolawulo lukarhulumente. Ukuqinisekiswa kwayo kokuthetha ngokukhululekileyo, ukucofa, unqulo, ilungelo lokuphatha iingalo, ukukhusela ukungaqiqiqi, kunye namalungelo okusesikweni aphulwa ngexesha. Kwiinkulungwane ezimbini ezidlulileyo, le migaqo iye yabonisa ngaphaya kwemida yaseMerika, isebenza njengesikhokelo seezixhobo zamalungelo abantu ehlabathini lonke kunye nemithetho yedemokhrasi yalekhrasi yale mihla. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa indlela uBill wamaxwebhu azimeleyo azimeleyo, ubuchule bokuyila impembelelo yayo, kunye nolungiselelo lwezimvo zayo ezingundoqo kwintetho yehlabathi lonke.

Imvelaphi Yembali Nemibhinqo Efihlakeleyo

IBhili yamaLungelo yavela kwingxoxo enzulu phakathi kwamaFederali kunye neAnti-Federalists ngexesha lokwenziwa kwemiGaqo-siseko wase-U. Abachasi-mikhosi basoyika ukuba urhulumente omtsha osembindini wayeza kuwanyathela ulawulo olufunyenwe kwimfazwe yendaleko. Ukukhusela ukudityaniswa, amaqela asekuhlaleni athembisa irejistation yamalungelo emva kweBhunga lokuqala. UJames Madison, ekuqaleni ethandabuza, waba ngumyili wezakhiwo, ukuzoba ngumzobo ophambili, kumthetho oqhelekileyo wesiXhosa, umgaqo-siseko wesizwe, kunye neeNkcutshe njengoJohn Locke noMontesquieu.

Iimpembelelo eziphambili ziquka iSindululo saMalungelo saseVirginia (1776), esibhaliswe nguGeorge Mason, owakhusela ngokucacileyo inkululeko yamaphephandaba, ilungelo lokuchophela ityala labachopheli-tyala, kunye nesohlwayo esinenkohlakalo nesingaqhelekanga. ISindululo samaNgesi samaLungelo sama-1689 sanikwa nemizekeliso. Izindululo zazicetyiselwe ukumisela ulawulo lwamagunya orhulumente nokugcina ulawulo, ingcamango engqongqo ngexesha elilawulwa ngamagunya olawulo omntu ngamnye.

Madison wacebisa ukuba kubekho uluhlu olude, kodwa iKhomishini yalunciphisa lwaba lishumi elinesibini, yaluthumela kumaphondo. NgoDisemba 1791, ishumi laqinisekiswa. Ezi zindululo zagunyaziswa ukukhusela okufunekayo kokuthetha, ukuhlanganisa, indibano, isicelo, unqulo, ukuphatha izixhobo, ukutsala, ukuphanda nokuxhuzula, inkqubo efunekayo, ukuzifaka ingozi ephindwe kabini, ukulingwa okuphezulu, ukuvavanywa kwetyala okukhawulezileyo, ukuvavanywa kwetyala lamakhaya, kunye namandla agcinelwe ngamazwe nabantu. ISijinga neSinyusi-Tenth, isoloko ingahoywa, iqinisekisa ukuba ukubekwa kwamalungelo athile akuwakhanyeli abanye, kwaye amandla angagunyaziswanga kurhulumente worhulumente agcinelwe kumagunya okanye abantu.

Imigaqo Yezono Eyahamba Ehlabathini Lonke

Inkululeko Yokuthetha, Yokushicilela, Yendibano Nesibongozo (Uhlaziyo Lokuqala)

UMthetho wokuqala Wokwaliwa kwemithetho "ovumela inkululeko yokuthetha, okanye yokushicilela; okanye ilungelo labantu lokuhlanganisa ngoxolo, nokucela uRhulumente ukuba alungise izikhalazo" ulufumene ulwazi noludlulisela ulwazi nangayiphi na imida yamalungelo abantu. ISigqibo 19 seSindululo somhlaba wonke samalungelo abantu (UDHR) sithi: "Wonke unelungelo lenkululeko yoluvo namazwi; eli lungelo liquka inkululeko yokubamba iimbono ngaphandle kokuphazamisa nokufuna, ukufumana nokudlulisela ulwazi neengcamango nangaphazanyiswanga kwemidaba nayiphi na imida." Isivumelo sezizwe ngeSivumelwano samalungelo oLuntu (CPHPHP) sandisa esi kwiSigqenduku 19, kunye nezixhobo zesizwe ezifana neNgqungquthelano yaseYurophu eMalungelo oLuntu (ActiveIthle) kwiSibuliso sabantu (ithle).

Unqulo UClauss (UMthetho Wokuqala Ohlaziyiweyo)

UHlaliso Lokuqala lukwalela imithetho "ehlonela ukusekwa konqulo, okanye ekwalela ukuqheliselwa kwalo ngokukhululekileyo". Olu khuselo lubini lokungamiselwanga nokuziqhelisela ngesisa luphenjelelwe liGatya 18 le-UDHR ("Wonke umntu unelungelo lenkululeko yokucinga, isazela nonqulo") kunye namalungiselelo afanayo kwi-ICCPR (Article 18), iConvention yaseYurophu (iQueqele 9), kunye neSicatshulwano saseAfrika eMalungelo oLuntu noLuntu (Artle 8).

Amalungelo okuthwala izixhobo (Uhlaziyo oluqukunjelweyo)

ISivumelwano sesibini soMphengululo weSigqibo sokugcina nokuphatha iingalo asifani ngqo kumaxwebhu ehlabathi lonke. Noko ke, ingcamango esisiseko yokuzikhusela ngokwayo kunye nelungelo lokuxhathisa ubundlobongela ivela kuqalo lwemithetho-siseko yengingqi. Umzekelo, iSicatshulwa saseAfrika, siyaliqonda ilungelo loxolo lwesizwe nokhuseleko lwezizwe ngezizwe, kodwa asigunyaziseli ubunini bompu. I-ICICPPR ne-UDHR azithethi ngalo mbandela. Noko ke, ingcamango yobumi bomthetho-mthetho wephondo obukwaziyo ukukhusela urhulumente onobuzwi obuphembelekileyo kumazwe akhuthazayo kwizakhiwo zeMelika.

Ukukhuselwa Kuphando Olungenangqiqo Neziphene (Uhlaziyo Lwesithathu)

Imfuneko yeSine soHlaziyo esekelwe kwizizathu ezilindelekileyo eziye zatshintshelwa kwimilinganiselo yezizwe ngezizwe yenkululeko nenkululeko yobuqu. Inqaku le-12 le-UDHR lithi: "Akukho mntu uza kugxambuliswa ngokungekho mthethweni ngokungekho mthethweni kwimicimbi yakhe yezamkelwe, yentsapho, yasekhaya okanye yemfonomfono." IGatya 17 le-ICPR liyakuphinda oku. ISihloko se-Europe sesi-8 singenisa ilungelo lokuhlonela ubomi bobuqu kunye nentsapho, ikhaya, kunye nokubhalelana ngaphandle komthetho kuphela nokuyimfuneko kwibutho ledemokhrasi. ISihlomelo se-10 se-American sinikela izikhuseli ezifanayo.

Ukuya Kwityala Elifanelekileyo (IziHlayiso Zesithandathu, Zesixhenxe Nezesibhozo)

Imigaqo efunekayo yenkqubo yeSigqibo seFind 5 kunye nenkqubo yolwaphulo-mthetho yokukhusela iSihlanu soMphengululo weSihlanu (ityala leSithandathu somgunyaziso, ityala lokungakhethi, ungquzulwano lwamangqina, uncedo lwesiluleko) ilungelelanise ngokuthe ngqo imilinganiselo yokuvavanywa kobulungisa bezizwe ngezizwe. IGatya 10 liqinisekisa ilungelo lokuchotshelwa ngokusesikweni nangendlela esesikweni yenkundla ezimeleyo. Inqaku le-I-ICCPR linika uluhlu olubanzi lwamalungelo obulungisa, kuquka ilungelo lokunikwa izityholo, ukuxelelwa, ukuba nexesha elaneleyo lokuzikhusela, nokuhlola amangqina, nokuvavanyazisa iSibonelo seSibonelo seSimiselo se-Hend 7 se-Garters 6 kunye neMimiselo yeMimiselo yeNkqulu.

Amaxwebhu Akhethekileyo Ehlabathi Ayilwe YiBhili Yamalungelo

ISindululo Sehlabathi Lonke Samalungelo Abantu (UDHR, 1948)

IUDHR, yabhaliswa phantsi kokhokelo lukaEleanor Roosevelt yaze yakhokelwa ngamanani afana noJohn Peters Humphrey (igqwetha laseKhanada elalungiselela idrafti yokuqala), yasebenzisa kakhulu iBhili yamaLungelo yase-U.S. Roosevelt yavakalisa ukuba isiSindululo sasi "nguMagna Carta kubo bonke abantu" kwaye safuzisela ulwimi lwayo kwimililiso yaseMelika. Inkululeko yokuqala yeSinyuko yavela kwiMigaqo 18, 19, kunye ne-20. Inkululeko yokuvavanywa kwetyala kwiMiba 10 kunye ne11 yeSihlanu. Ukwalelwa kobukhoboka (ith. 4) kuvakalisa ukuvalwa kolawulo lweshumi elineshumi elinesithandathu, kunye nokukhuselwa ekuthintelweni okungalawuleni okungalawulekiyo (iMenyusi-9). I-HDR yaba yisivumelwano se-Gequmfortsform.

Umnqophiso Wezizwe Ngezizwe Wamalungelo Asekuhlaleni Nawamapolitiki (ICCPR, 1966)

I-ICCPR icacisa amalungelo kwi-UDHR ize iwenze abopheke ngokusemthethweni kumaqela asekuhlaleni. Inqaku lawo 6, 7, 9, 14, 17, 18, 21, kunye nelama-25 lihambelana noBill yamalungiselelo amalungelo. Umzekelo, iSiqendu 14 siqinisekisa ukulingwa ngokusesikweni ngokucinezelwa kokunganyani, ixesha elincinane lokulungiselela, kwaye linelungelo lokucebisa ngokungqalileyo iSindululo seSithandathu. Inqaku le-17 lidibanisa ukhuseleko lwe-Sihlaziyo se-Sine Amendlo-Mnyu. Icandelo 18 lenkululeko yokucinga nonqulo lihambisana nomgaqo wesiQuluthi sokuziqhelisela inkululeko yamadlalo. ISiqendulo 21 samalungelo e-entlanganiso elungileyo neSigqenduku 22 sonxulumano olufanelekileyo lokuQondalo Lokuqala. I-I-ISCUR iquka amalungiselelo afunyanwa kuRGeneecester, njengakuwokunene (i-Admicrectic) kunye nenkululeko yoluntu esiqhelekileyo esi-7, kodwa i-204) ngokucacileyo, i-2064.

INdibano YaseYurophu Yamalungelo Abantu (ECHR, 1950)

I-ECHR yayalelwa liBhunga laseYurophu ukuba ithintele ukuphinda kuphinde kubonakaliswe kwezenzo zenkohlakalo zeMfazwe Yehlabathi II. Abaququzeli bayo bakhangela kwiUDHR kunye neSigqeba samaLungelo. Icandelo 10 likhusela inkululeko yokuchaza, liphawula ukuba isenokuba phantsi kwemigaqo, imiqathango, imiqathango okanye izigwebo ezimiselwe ngumthetho neziyimfuneko kwibutho ledemokhrasi. Esi sipili siQhubo soQoqo loLawulo loLugqizo lokuqala sibandakanya ilungelo lokuvavanyaniswa kwetyala elilungileyo ngexesha elifanelekileyo, elifana neSithandathu IsiHlamkiso soMnyuselo. Icandelo 8 likhusela ubomi bobucala, ikhaya, kunye nokunxibelelana, iSindululo 9 esiyimfuneko kwiNkqululo sezo-demo-demokhrasi. Icandelo leSibonelelo seNtloko sikhusela inkululeko yeNtloko yomthetho esiphefumlelweyonganye yeNtlanga eliphefumlelweyo. Imithetho yeNtolongo yeNtolongo yezo yesizwe ephefumlelwe ngowona mthetho.

ISibhengezo Samalungelo Nezikhundla Zomntu SaseMerika (1948)

NgoAprili 1948, isindululo saseMerika sandulela iUDHR ngeenyanga ezisithoba. Sabhaliswa yi-Urganization of America saza sakhutshwa ngokucacileyo kwi-U.S. Bill of Rights kunye nezinye iirepublics. Inqaku laso liquka ilungelo lokuphila, inkululeko, kunye nokhuseleko lobuqu (iSindululo I); ukulingana phambi komthetho (i-UDicule II); inkululeko yonqulo (i-Artle XXX); inkululeko yokubonakalisa (incole XXVI); ilungele inkqubo kunye nokuvavanywa okufanelekileyo (i-Articles XXII, XXIV, XXXVI); i-ok); i-onele kwipropati yepropati (ikholi).

Itshati yaseAfrika yamalungelo abantu (19981)

ISicatshulwa se-Afrikan Charter, esamkelwa yi-Union of African Unity, sibandakanya amalungu amalungelo akhululekileyo aseNtshona kunye namalungelo aseAfrika. Amanqaku aso amalungelo oluntu nawopolitiki avakalisa ngokucacileyo iBhili yamaLungelo: ICandelo 9 liqinisekisa inkululeko yokubonakalisa, Inqaku le-10 liqinisekisa inkululeko yokudibana, Icandelo 11 liqinisekisa inkululeko yendibano, IGatya le-12 liqinisekisa inkululeko yokuhamba, Inqaku lesi-7 liqinisekisa ilungelo lokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni, Inqaku 6 liqinisekisa inkululeko nokhuseleko lomntu (ukubanjwa nokuvalelwa okungekho mthethweni), Inqaku lesiBhawu 5 likwalela inkohlakalo, inkohlakalo, okanye ukuphatha okuhlazisa inkquzelo, iSicatshulo sesizwe, iSihlomelo esikwaneembalelo-mthetho, iSimiselo, iSimiselo esilungele ukuvavanywa komntu ngamnye wobudlela sika-Bill wamaLungelo.

Ubuchule Bempembelelo: Indlela Eye yaba Ngumzekelo Obalaseleyo Wamalungelo Ehlabathi Lonke

Ilifa Lelizwe Eliwayo Nezikhundla ZaseMerika

Njengoko iUnited States yavela njengegunya lehlabathi lonke ngenkulungwane ye-19 neye-20, amaxwebhu ayo asekwayo azuza udumo lwezizwe ngezizwe. Amazwe amaninzi awafumana uzimeleyo kumagunya amathanga, ingakumbi e-Latin America, Afrika, nase-Asia, ajonga kumGaqo-siseko wase-U.S. kunye neSikolo samalungelo e-Rondebstanti njengeplani yokukhusela inkululeko yoluntu ngexesha imisela ulawulo oluzinzileyo. Umzekelo, uMgaqo-siseko wase-Philippines ka-1992 uquka irekhonkcola yamalungelo athelelwe kwi-U.S. I-Antellinementalmentalmentalmental, ngoxa iphenjezelwe yizithethe zepalamente, i-malunge elisisiseko (Artles 12-35) ngokucacileyo elifana nelungelo elicacileyo nenkululeko yokulawula i-ntetho, kuquka inkululeko, indibano, kunye nokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni.

Iqela lamaLungelo oLuntu elikwiNtlanganiso yaBantu emva kweMfazwe Yehlabathi II

Izenzo zenkohlakalo zeMfazwe Yehlabathi II zaqinisekisa umbutho womhlaba wonke wokwenza amalungelo abantu abe ngamaqela. Ukuqulunqwa kwe-U.N. (1945) kunye neSindululo Sehlabathi Lonke (1948) kwabandakanya abathunywa abasuka kwizithethe ezininzi ezisemthethweni, kodwa abathunywa baseMerika, ababekhokelwa nguElenor Roosevelt kunye namagosa eSebe leSebe lezeMigaqo-nkqubo yezeMthethweni, baqinisekisa ukuba iBhili yeMithethombo yaMalungelo yayiqukiwe. Inyaniso yokuba i-U.S. iSivume somGaqo-siseko sasisele sibonise ukuba ukhuseleko olunjalo lunokubakho kwidemokhrasi esebenzayo yabangela ukuba lube nobunzima. I-ICICICDPR, irhu, irhunywe ngokuba lizigwegwebo bomthetho kunye nemithetho yoluntu, yamkela izikhuseli eziphambili kuMandla eelwanoburhulumenteni ngenxa yokuba zixhaka kumthetho.

Ingcamango Nemfundiso Ephambili Yomgwebo

Ingcaciso zeNkundla ePhakamileyo yaMalungelo eUnited States nazo ziphembelele iinkundla kunye namaqumrhu esivumelwano ehlabathi lonke. Umzekelo, "clear kunye nengozi ekhoyo" uvavanyo oluvela Scheck v. United States [1919]) (1919) ingcaciso yeNkundla yaseYurophu yamalungelo abantu ekwahlulele imiqathango ekhululekileyo. Imfundiso ye-U.S. "ixesha, indawo, kunye nendlela" yokubekwa kwemiqathango ichazwe yiNkundla ye-Internet-American. Imfuno zophendlo kunye nomthetho wokuphendla .Mpt. iOU. v[FLT] [12:3] [1961]) ineenzalo yemithetho yeNkundla yaseYurophu neyoMGwabhino ye-Corbelo.

Iingxaki Nezicelo ZeBhili Yamalungelo

Nangona iBhili yamaLungelo eeNtlalo-ntle iye yanempembelelo, abagxeki bathi ukugxininisa kwayo kobuqu, kwenkululeko yabemi akwanele ukuqhubana namalungelo abantu, izoqoqosho, intlalo, kunye namalungelo enkcubeko, kunye neemfuno zabantu abangengawo amaWestern. IUDHR kunye neesivumelwano ezilandelayo ezijolise ekulinganiseni amalungelo emali nezo zezobupolitika namalungelo ezoqoqosho kunye namalungelo entlalo kunye nobuhlanga (elungelo lokusebenza, imfundo, impilo), engawandiswanga kumabhinqa, amaMelika, okanye ama-Afrika. Nangona kamva iSivumelwano saseAfrika siquka amalungelo abantu ekuzinzeni, inkqubela, inkqubela, kunye noxolo. Abanye abaphengululi baphawula ukuba amalungelo eemeko amalungelo ezoqoqosho asungulweyo, asungulweyo, yaye azimeleyo, imigaqo-onke e-Aptionalins, i-Aptionalinst, i-offrances.

Isiphelo

IBhili yamaLungelo e-U.S., nangona izelwe ngexesha elithile elingokwembali kunye noxokelelwano lwezobupolitika, yachaza intlanganiso esisiseko yenkululeko eyayivakala kwiinkulungwane namazwekazi. Ilungiselelo layo lokuthetha, ukushicilela, unqulo, ukuphengulula nokuthamba, inkqubo efanelekileyo, kunye nokuvavanywa ngokusesikweni kwaba yisikhokelo samalungelo abantu eSindululo soluntu kunye nezopolitiko, i-ICIPR, kunye nayo yonke imfuno enkulu yengingqi yamalungelo abantu. IBhili yamaLungelo angaphelelanga nje kuphela kurhulumente waseMerika kodwa kwakhona yanika ihlabathi ulwimi oluthiyalela ukuba bonke oorhulumente bahlonele isidima nolawulo lomntu ngamnye. Njengoko amalungelo abantu ehlabathi lonke eqhubeka eguquka, ityala lawo lokuqala lihlala linzulu. Ukukhangela nzulu okubhaliweyo kwe-Bill Resorders [10] [5] [5]