UMgaqo-siseko wase-U.S. umisela inkqubo kazwelonke edala uxinezeleko phakathi kolawulo lwesizwe kunye nobukhulu bomthetho wesizwe. UMthetho ohlaziyiweyo weAndeminth unika umgaqo-nkqubo ngokuphangaleleyo ngokuzikhusela ekumangalelweni kwamacala omntu othile, kodwa eli khaka linokuphazamisa ukunyanzeliswa kwamalungelo omgaqo-siseko. inxalenye yeYoung imfundiso, esusiwe kwisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo yowe-199088, isebenza njengomahluko obalulekileyo kukhuselo lolawulo lolawulo lolawulo. Ivumela abantu ngabanye ukuba batshahende amagosa orhulumente kumthetho osisithulelo oluqhubekayo ukuze bathintele ukuchasana komthetho worhulumente. Kwinkulungwane kamva, le mfundiso ihlala ingumgaqo wesiseko somgaqo-mthetho-mthetho-siseko kunye nenkqubo esisisiseko solawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo lwezolawulo.

IRedesi yoMgaqo-siseko: IsiHlaliso seshumi elinesine kunye noLawulo

Ukuqonda imfundiso Ex e Young ifuna uxabiso lomhlaba womgaqo-siseko owawusikiwe kuwo. UMthetho oLandekileyo weshumi elinesithoba wagunyaziswa ngo1795 ukubhukuqa Shisholm v. Georgia[ (1793), ityala apho iNkundla ePhakamileyo ephethe amagunya anokunyuselwa kwinkundla yolawulo yabemi bobucala. Intengiselwano yemibhalo ityiselwa kwilizwe labemi belizwe elinye okanye ilizwe lasemzini: "Igunya le-Jaji le-United States] aliyi kuqwalaselwa nakwe nawuphi na umthetho okanye ukumiswa, okanye ukuquluswa komnye urhulumente waseUnited States, okanye ukuquluselwa komnye urhulumente woburhulumente boburhulumente bobuGwanewaneezwe okanye naliphi naliphi nalelo lobuzwe lobuGrentla."

Inkundla ePhakamileyo kamva yandisa olu khuselo lubalulekileyo ku- ngokunjalo. Olu tolika lwaluthetha ukuba urhulumente akanakubekwa ngqo, kwanasekwaphulweni komGaqo-siseko, ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uvume okanye iBhunga ligunyaziswe ngokusemthethweni ukuba uthintelo lwezigwebo phantsi kweCandelo le-145 lokuHlaziyPGrain. Oku kuthintelwa kuvela kumthetho womthetho karhulumente. Ukuba urhulumente uthe waphula amalungelo omthetho, urhulumente ngokwakhe akanakubizwa njengetyala elingurhulumente, ngaphandle kokuba urhulumente uvumelwano okanye urhulumente uvuselelwe ngokusemthethweni ukhuseleko olusemthethweni olusemthethweni olulawukileyo, ngaphandle kokuba icandelo elingu 5 lokhuseleko phantsi kwe-145.

Lo msantsa wawunengxaki ngokukodwa ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yeshumi elinesithoba nasekuqaleni kwamashumi amabini, xa amazwe ayelawula amaxabiso eloliwe, amaxabiso ombane, neminye imisebenzi yezoqoqosho. Abantu kunye neenkampani zoshishino ngokufuthi babesithi le mimiselo yorhulumente yayisaphula iNkqubo elindelekileyo okanye i-Commerce Claus. Kodwa iDemistile yeshumi elinesithoba kunye nenkcazelo ye- ebonakala ibathintela ekufuneni uncedo kwinkundla yesizwe nxamnye norhulumente ngokwawo.

I Genesis yemfundiso: Ex process Young[[FLT: 1] (1908)

Kulo lwaphulo-mthetho lwangena kwityala Ex e Young, 209 U.S. 123 (08). Impikiswano yavela kumthetho weMinnesota owamisela amanani aphezulu oololiwe kwaye wabeka izigwebo eziqatha, kuquka intengo kunye nokuvalelwa entolongweni, kwiiseyile ezingazange zithobele. Iziporo zavavanya ubugqeba bomthetho, ziphikisa ukuba amanani ayeyiyo imigaqo-siseko engqubanayo kwaye aphazamisa uLawulo lweshumi elinesine.

Umbuzo obalulekileyo womthetho wawukukuba ngubani kwaye ngubani onokuthi alwenze ucelomngeni. Urhulumente waseMinnesota wayegonyiwe kwisuntswana phantsi koMthetho oLawulwe ngeshumi elinesithoba. Kodwa ke, abaqeqeshi bafaka isenzo kwinkundla karhulumente ngokuchasene negqwetha likarhulumente, uEdward T. Young, befuna umyalelo wokumthintela ekunyanzeleni umthetho kwingcamango yokuba umthetho ongamiselwanga ngumthetho uphelelwe ligunya elisemthethweni uphuthileyo, nokuba umphathi wesizwe ozama ukunyanzelela umthetho ongenanto uyasebenza ngaphandle komthetho osemthethweni.

INkundla ePhakamileyo yayamkela le ngcamango ngokugqabaza kweJaji uRufus Peckham. Inkundla yathi isuti echasene negosa lesizwe ukuyalela ukunyanzeliswa komthetho ongamiselwanga ngumthetho womthetho womthetho akusosuthi ngokuchasene norhulumente ngeenjongo zoMphengululo weshumi elinesithoba. IJaji Peckham yabonisa ngokudumileyo ukuba umthetho ongavumelaniyo nomthetho ongowasemthethweni "okruqukileyo nowephukileyo" kwaye ngoko igosa umthetho karhulumente osebenza phantsi komthetho onjalo ngu-"oknakelelo lwasemthethweni okanye ummeli" kwaye ngoko uphantsi kokufaneleka njengomntu ngamnye. Lo "Njolo olunofiso lomthetho" luvumele iNkulwano lweNkulwano loMgaqo-siseko ukuba uvumela ukumanisa ukhuseleko lwemeko lwesizwe nobukhosi.

Ukusukela ekusungulweni kwayo, le mfundiso iye yagxekwa njengechaphazelekayo ngokusengqiqweni. Njengoko uMgwebi John Marshall Harlan aphawula ngokungavumelani, igosa lorhulumente lisasebenza phantsi kombala womthetho karhulumente, kwaye layala igosa ukuba lingawunyanzeli ngqo umthetho walo. Sekunjalo, ukusinda kwemfundiso kubonisa imfuneko esebenzisekayo: ngaphandle kwayo, ukwaphulwa komgaqo-siseko ngamagosa karhulumente kungahlala kungathintelwa, kwaye iinkundla zesizwe ziya kuswela amandla okunyanzelisa umGaqo-siseko nxamnye nesenzo sikarhulumente.

Ukubambelela Kwentambo

Umgaqo ongundoqo omiselwe kwi Ex e Young ucacile: U Amenzi-mendo weshumi elinesine akawanyanzeli amagosa karhulumente xa isiqabu sifunwa singumyalelo ochasene nolwaphulo-mthetho oluqhubekayo okanye ozayo. Oku kubambeka kuye kwaqinisekiswa kwacaciswa amaxesha amaninzi kwinkulungwane edluleyo, kuqinisa indawo yayo njengeempawu eziyimfuneko zomthetho-siseko waseMelika.

Indlela Esebenza Ngayo Le mfundiso

Imfundiso yeqela leqela leqela leqela leqela leqela leqela lezifundo isebenza phantsi kweseti ethile yemithetho emisela xa ukumangalelwa kwegosa likarhulumente kuvumelekile. Ukuqonda aba bakhandi kucel ’ ityala kubaquzeleli kunye nabagwebi ngokufanayo.

Umahluko Othi Ukho

Umlinganiselo obalulekileyo kule mfundiso wangena kwi Edelman v. Jordan, 415 U.S. 651 (1974). Edelman[, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela ekubeni i-[FLT:] i-Ex inxenyee Young [[FLT:]] ivumela kuphela [[FLT:] ukumiswa koncedo oluzenzekelayo [[FLT]]. Ityala elisebenzayo elimele lihlawulwa ngulawulo likhuselwe yi-A110%. Lo mbuso ukhuseleko ulawulo lwemali ngexesha lolawulo lwemali olunemali xa uvumela ukumiswa komthetho-mthetho-mthetho-siseko we-siseko somthetho.

Umzekelo, ukuba urhulumente onegunya uvala ngokuphosakeleyo iinzuzo zomntu zeMedicaid, umlahli uyakwazi ukukucela uncedo lokubuyiselwa ukuya phambili (ukukhululeka kokuhlola). Noko ke, umchasi akanakusebenzisa [[FLT: 0] umahluko okwiqela elincinane ukufumana intlawulo yangasemva ngexesha apho iingenelo zakha zakhatywa ngokuphosakeleyo (umonakalo osebenzayo). Ukufumana uncedo olusebenzayo, umchasi-mthetho uzakufuna ukuqinisekisa ukuba urhulumente unikezele ukhuseleko lwawo okanye ukuba iBhunga eligunyaziweyo lichanile.

Imfuneko Eqhubekayo Yokwaphula

Le mfundiso ifuna ungquzulwano oluqhubekayo lomthetho wezwe. Isuti efuna ukulungisa imposiso edlulileyo, egqityiweyo ayiweli ngaphakathi kwe 'expace Young ukunxaxha. Le mfuneko ihambelana nobume obungatshintshiyo bonyango olufunwayo.

Ngoko, i-axilertiff icela umthetho wesizwe osele uphelisiwe okanye inkqubo esele irhoxisiwe ayinakuxhomekeka [[FLT: 0] Ex candelo Young ukuzisa ityala. I-Placttiff mayicebise ukuba igosa lorhulumente lisebenza ngoku (okanye liza kuthatha inyathelo) ngokwaphula umthetho wezwe.

Ummeli Ofanelekileyo

Ityala kufuneka libekwe kwigosa likarhulumente elinonxibelelwano oluthile nokunyanzeliswa komthetho ocetyiswayo. Igosa alifuni ukuba libe ligosa eliphezulu lorhulumente, kodwa kufuneka libe negunya lokunyanzelisa umthetho ekuthethwa ngawo. Isuti echasene negosa elingenagunya lokuqinisekisa ukuba linyanzeliswa iza kugxothwa njengelibizwa ngokungafanelekanga. Ngaphezu koko, isuti mayithiye igosa kumandla alo okanye asemthethweni, hayi urhulumente ngokwawo.

Ukusikelwa Umda Nezinto Ezikhethekileyo Kuyo

Ngelixesha Ex nxenye yeYoung inika umahluko ophangaleleyo kukhuselo lobuso, ububanzi bayo abunasiphelo. Imiqathango emininzi ebalulekileyo inyanzela ukusebenza kwayo.

[[FLT: 0] Seminole Frive v. Florida: Udweliso Lwendlela olucacisiweyo olucatshulweyo

USELE REFY] Iqela le Florida, 517 U.S.196], iNkundla Ephakamileyo yabambelela kwisigqibo sokuba apho iNkundla ibangele khona iNkqutyana yenze ulungiso oluneenkcukacha lokumisa ilungelo lezwe, [[FLT:] i-[FGUL:] i-Ex icandelo leNtshabo encinci [[FLT]] [[FLT]] lemfundiso ayinakusetyenziswa ukuvala imiqathango yaloo cebo. [[FLT:][4] USMINOLET] Uhlanga , i-INKSTIOM], iSect elungiselelwe uGenegalelo olukhethekileyo lwamanyeneyo, nezizwe ukuqululelanisa ii-'interlkst , yaye igqityeti ye-Fod project.[F]

Lo mahluko mxinwa. Iinkundla jikelele ziqiqa ukuba umthetho wesizwe awuthathi ndawo Ex icandelo uYoung ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga lizibonakalise ngokucacileyo kwaye ngokucacileyo izimisele ukwenjenjalo.

Isiko eliNciphisayo

[[FLT: 0] umfana wemfundiso eqinileyo, ethathwe ku ulutsha. Harris (1971], ibeke imiqathango engakumbi yokusetyenziswa kwe [ ulwahlulo oluncinci . Phantsi ulutsha , iinkundla zequmrhu ezilawulayo zimele zingakuvumeli ukuququzelelwa kwemithetho yolwaphulo-mthetho, ezinye izindululo zomthetho, nezinye izindululo zemeko ezibonisa izilangazelelo ezibalulekileyo. Le mfundiso yenjongo yesiseko sobuzwe, ifuna iinkundla zolawulo lobuzwe ukuhlonela ulawulo lwenkundla.

Kuba Imfundiso yeqela leqela lisicombululo esingenakulinganiswa, iphantsi kwemiqathango elinganayo, kuquka umfana uluvo lobuzali. Nokuba umchasi uyakwazi ukuseka ulwahlulo oluqhubekayo lwegosa, inkundla yorhulumente ingakwala ukusebenzisa igunya ukuba oko kuthethwa ngumlawuli uthe nyanisekile kwaye kuviwe kakuhle kwimicimbi yesizwe eqhubekayo.

Isuti Enxamnye Nemithetho Karhulumente NeeNkundla

Imfundiso Ex isebenza kuphela kwiisuti ezichasene [ne- zamasebe anqumlayo amagosa. Amaqela achasene neendlu zowiso-mthetho okanye iinkundla zikarhulumente jikelele awavunyelwa phantsi kwemfundiso. Isizathu sisithi intelekelelo yokuba imfundiso engokwasemthethweni ayidluliseli kwimithetho-mthetho namasebe echokoza, anezimvo zawo zokuqhuba imigaqo-siseko. Oku kuthetha ukuba, ucelomngeni lokumisela imithetho okanye iinkqubo zomthetho kufuneka zimisele abaphathi-manyathelo abajongele ekujongeni okanye ekujongeni abagqaliseni loo migaqo okanye ekuqhubeni loo migaqo.

Impembelelo Ehlala Ihleli Kumanyano Lolawulo Lwelizwe

Imfundiso Ex ee Young ivelise ifuthe elinzulu nelihlala lihleli kumthetho wokhuselo lobukhosi. Ngaphandle kwayo, uLawulo lweshumi elinesine luza kukhusela amagosa karhulumente ngokunempumelelo kuyo yonke imingeni yomgaqo-siseko, lushiya abantu bengenayo ikhambi lamalungelo abo aqhubekayo.

Ubuxoki Nabagxeki Babo

Ukuxhomekeka kwale mfundiso kwintsomi "yomthetho" kuye kwatsala ukugxekwa okusuka kwiingcamango ezingafaniyo. Abaphengululi abachaza textalist kunye nabaqulunqi baphikisa ngelithi iPramente yeshumi elinesibhozo ithetha kanye oko ikutshoyo: ithetha ukuba azikhusela kwisuti kwinkundla yephondo, kungakhathaliseki ukuba ngokusemthethweni ifanele igatye irhulumente okanye igosa lesizwe lehambo eqhutywe ngokusemthethweni. IJaji Antonin Scalia, ngokukodwa, igxeka le mfundiso ngokuthi yi-"overruversing" yombhalo we-Anjisombululo Yeshumi-nye.

Sekunjalo, le mfundiso ingqineke ihlala ixesha elide. INkundla ePhakamileyo iphinde yayiqinisekisa ngokuphindaphindiweyo, iqonda ukuba iingenelo zayo eziluncedo zingaphezulu kobuthathaka bayo bokuyila. Njengokuba iNkundla yaphawula kwi [[FLT: 0] iVirginia Office for Profivial and Advocacy v. Stewart[, i-631, , i-Ex] i-ee Young [ imfundiso ifanele ukuvumela iinkundla ukuba zilwele amalungelo omanyano."

Iinkundla Zomanyano Ezinika Amandla

Le mfundiso inike iinkundla zorhulumente amandla okunyanzelisa umGaqo-siseko kunye nemithetho karhulumente echasene namagosa karhulumente kuludwe oluninzi lwemeko. Iye yaba ngoyena mthombo ekuphuhlisweni kwamalungelo abemi, umthetho wemekobume, kunye nomGaqo-siseko wemingeni yokumisela imimiselo yezoqoqosho. Ukufumaneka koncedo olulindelekileyo phantsi uEx Young uvumele abantu kunye nemibutho ukuba baphendule abadlali bezomthetho wokwaphula umthetho.

Ukulungelelanisa uManyano nokuXolelwa

Le mfundiso ibangela ulungelelwano oluthe ngqo phakathi koburhulumente nokuziphendulela. Ichaphazele ulawulo lwamazwe ngokuthintela iisuti ngqo nxamnye norhulumente nangokulinganisela isiqabu kumayeza alindelekileyo. Kodwa ikwaqinisekisa ukuba amagosa karhulumente akanakusebenzisa ukhuseleko lobuzwilakhe njengekhaka ukuze abandakanyeke kwihambo engachananga neyoburhulumente engasohlwaywa. Olu lungelelwano lubalulekile ekusebenzeni kwenkqubo yorhulumente.

IiNkqubo zale mihla ze Ex icandelo u Mntwana

Imfundiso ye- Exte Young ayiyonto embalini. Ihlala iyisixhobo esibalulekileyo kwintsebenzo yangoku kwimimandla emininzi yomthetho.

Ukhupho-mali lwamalungelo oluntu (Ulwahlulo lowe-1901)

Le mfundiso isoloko ibheniswa kumalungelo abantu phantsi kwama-42 e-U.S.C. ngo1998. Abalawuli basebupoliseni basoloko bemangalela amagosa karhulumente ngokungeyomfuneko `abagcini-mikhosi basemakhomishini, abasemakhomishini yamapolisa, kunye neentloko zamasebe .

Umthetho Wokusingqongileyo

Amaqela okusingqongileyo kunye nabemi abangabodwa basebenzisa le mfundiso ukunyanzelisa imithetho yemekobume echasene namaqumrhu karhulumente. Umzekelo, ukuba umbutho wobume bokusingqongileyo uyehluleka ukuthobela uMthetho we-Chyaking Water okanye i-Decrape Air Act, umchasi-mgam-mgaqo unokumangalela umalathisi wombutho phantsi uAx Young [ ukunyanzela ukuba avume. Le mfundiso iqinisekisa ukuba amasebe karhulumente awawuthithi xhathiswayo ummiselo oqhubekayo wemimiselo yemeko-omatilotralitivel.

Impilo kunye ne-Medicaid

Abanikezeli bezonyango nezigulana baye basebenzisa le mfundiso ukuvavanya inkqubo yeMedicaid echasene nomthetho worhulumente. Umzekelo, ukuba urhulumente unciphisa imali-mali yemali yeMedicaid ngaphandle kokuhambisana nesaziso nemfuno zikarhulumente, abanikezeli bangamangalela umalathisi wesizwe weMedicaid phantsi ex candeloe Young ukumisela ukucuthwa kwesantya. Ngokufanayo, ucelomngeni lokumisela imiqathango yokuqhomfa, esoloko ibandakanya ukuchasana namalungu ebhodini yezamayeza okanye amagosa ezempilo, ixhomekeke kwimfundiso yokuseka igunya kwinkundla yezolawulo yorhulumente.

Umthetho Wokhetho Nokunika Amalungelo

Kumthetho wonyulo, le mfundiso ivumela abavoti namaqela ogunyaziso ukuba acel ’ umngeni imithetho yokuvota engqongqo, iimaphu ezicuthekileyo, okanye iimfuno zokhetho. Isuti zidla ngokuziswa nxamnye namagosa onyulo karhulumente, njengonobhala wezwe, onegunya lokumisela imithetho ecelw ’ umngeni. Le mfundiso inika inkqubo yokufumana isiphumlisi esikhawulezileyo sokuthintela ingozi kumavoti phambi konyulo.

Isiphelo

Imfundiso ye- Ex ee Young lisiseko somthetho womgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Nangona ibekwe kwintsomi esemthethweni, isebenza umsebenzi obalulekileyo wesakhiwo: iqinisekisa ukuba ukukhusela ulawulo lolawulo lomntu akusingumqobo wokunyanzeliswa komthetho wesizwe. Ngokuvumela iisuti ezikhoyo kwinkululeko ekhoyo ngokuchasene namagosa orhulumente, imfundiso inxibelelanisa amaxabiso aphikisanayo olawulo lorhulumente nobukhulu borhulumente. Inika igunya lokumisela iinkundla ukuba zimisele abalahlisi bemithetho eqhubekayo, zikhusele amalungelo omthetho ngamnye kwaye zigcine umthetho kwinkqubo karhulumente esetyenziswa kwakudala njengoko amandla asetyenziswa ngurhulumente achasene nomGawulayo, imfundiso iya kuhlala ikwisixhobo esingundoqo sokulungisa imicimbi yemithetho.

Ukuqhubeka ufunda, jonga iimbono zetyala [[FLT: 0] Oyez: iEx projecte Young, iJordan [FLT]] iNkangeleko yeNkcubeko yezolwazi yeExtrape Young[, kunye nesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo sexesha elizayo [[FLT]] Edelman v. [indlela enzima] yokuphelisa ukukhululeka okungaqhelekanga. Ukongeza, imeko ye VGiiiiiiiiiii yendawo yoKhuselo nokhuselo.[Foct.5]