ISigqibo seWar Powers sowe-1973 simi njengenye yezidibi zomthetho eziphikisanayo kwimbali yomgaqo-siseko waseMelika. Yamiselwa ukuba ithathe inxaxheba kuMongameli Richard Nixon, yayiyilelwe ukuvavanya amandla kamongameli okufaka imikhosi ye-U.S. kwimikhosi yokulwa ngaphandle kwemvume yogunyaziso. Imvelaphi yayo, nokokuba, idityaniswe kakhulu ziingxoxo zomgaqo-siseko malunga nokuchazwa kwamandla ofanelekileyo kamongameli. Kumashumi eminyaka akutshanje, intanda-bulumko yobumongameli bendalo . //ingcamango yokuba uMgaqo-siseko ufanele utolikwe ngokwentsingiselo yawo yantlalo-wonke ngexesha lokuqulukwano-o-o-mthetho.

Ukuqonda Intanda - bulumko Yokuqala

Intanda-bulumko yoqobo igxininisa ukuba umGaqo-siseko kufuneka uchazwe ngokwentsingiselo yokuba abantu abanolwazelelelo banokuyiqonda ukuba ivunyiwe ngexesha. Le ndlela igxininisa intsingiselo yantlandlolo yombhalo kunye nomongo wembali wexesha lokusekwa, isoloko ixhathisa iinkcazelo zomthetho okanye ezopolitiko eziguqula izinto zale mihla. I-Distism asiyo-monolith; inemisonto emibini engundoqo. injongo yombhalo igxininisa oko kwakujolise kujoliseko lwezifektha ngokwazo, ngexesha intsingiselo yangaphambili kawonke wonke [[FLT] ijongeneinters indlela ummi onengqondo anokuyiqonda ngayo umbhalo we-mo - siseko ngexesha lokwazisa. Abahlali bexesha langoku, njengoGenesticial Sclane, njengoko kuthethwa nguGene Scrence

Intanda-bulumko yafumana ulwahlulo ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yama-20 njengempendulo yoko abagxeki bakugqala njengokuthatha inyathelo lokugweba kunye nokufundwa okunzulu kwamandla olawulo. Kumongo wamandla emfazwe, abalandeli bentlalo-siseko baphikisa ngelithi umbhalo kunye nesakhiwo somGaqo-siseko zinika icandelo elicacileyo, elizinzileyo legunya phakathi kweBhunga nomongameli. Eli candelo, liphikisa, lenzelwe ukuthintela izenzo zomkhosi ezingathathi zilandeleni nayiphi nayiphi na enye indawo, ukuba iSigqibo semfazwe seWar Powessombululo sizimisele ukusilawula. Ngokubambelela kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo, abakholelwa kwingcamango yomgaqo-siseko wokwahlukana kwamandla kugcinwe kugcinwe, kwaye ukuphendula kolawulo lwedemokhrasi kugcinwe kwimicimbi yemfazwe noxolo.

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko samagunya emfazwe

Umgaqo-siseko womgaqo-siseko wamandla emfazwe ufumaneka ngokuyintloko kwiZihlolo I kunye ne II. Inqaku Ndinika iNkqutyana amandla okubhengeza imfazwe, ukunyusa nokuxhasa imikhosi, ukubonelela nokugcina imikhosi yamanzi, kwaye wenze imithetho yokulawula imikhosi yemikhosi. Inqaku II lichaza umongameli njengeNkulumbuso-iNkulumbuso yoMkhosi noMkhosi wamanzi, kunye noorhulumente bomkhosi xa bebizwa kwinkonzo karhulumente. Le candelo yaba ngumphumo wokuthethana ngocoselelo kwiNgqungquthela yezo zomGaqo-siseko ka1787, ibonakalisa ukungathemba amandla olawulo olulawulayo nokungathintelwa nokwazisa imfuneko yokumanyana komyalelo phakathi kongquzulwano.

Umbono Wabaseki

Abaqulunqi bakhomba kwingxoxo yoMseki wemfazwe ukuze akhanyisele ukumaqondana kwawo amagunya emfazwe. UJames Madison waphikisa kwiManyano yama-Manyange ukuba inkqubo yokuhlola nokulungelelana komGaqo-siseko yenzelwe ukuqinisekisa ukuba “amandla okuvakalisa imfazwe” aya kubekwa kwiBhunga, ngoxa umongameli wayeza kuphumeza imfazwe yakha yavakaliswa. UAlexander Hamilton, kuFederalist No. 69, wathelekisa umongameli waseMelika kunye nokumkani waseBritane, ekwangawathi amandla kamongameli njengoMlawuli-in-Chiefe,“ angaphantsi kakhulu kweyankosi, ingakumbi ngenxa yokuba umongameli wayengenakuvakalisa imfazwe ngaphandle kwemvume kaBhunga. Izazi zenzululwazi zigxininisa ukuthi umbhali uMenduleli ukujonga amandla okuqalisa umsebenzi wemfazwe njenge-Rhulumente, kwiqela lesizwe.

Okubhaliweyo nokwakhiwa komGaqo-siseko

Kulwazi lwantlandlolo, umbhalo womGaqo-siseko ngokwawo ugqibezela. IGandry War Clausle (Artle I, Icandelo 8, u-Classia 11) inika iKhomishini amandla akhethekileyo “okwenza imfazwe,” amaqela amandulo achaza njengequka zombini izindululo ezisemthethweni kunye negunya lokuquququzelela umkhosi. UMphathi-in-Chief Claus (uMgaqo-ka-ka-kapousle II, iCandelo 2, iSigaba sesibini, iSithiwe (1) inika umongameli umyalelo phezu kwamandla emkhosi xa esemasimini, kodwa ayithethi ukuba negunya lokuqalisa imfazwe yoMphathi-Chief Claus esungulwe kakuhle.

Isindululo Samandla Emfazwe: Ukusabela Kulawulo Oluphezulu

ISigqibo seWar Powers sowe-1973 samiswa emva kwemfazwe yaseVietnam, umlo apho umongameli uLyndon Johnson noRichard Nixon baqhuba imisebenzi yomkhosi elinganiswe ngesantya esikhulu ngaphandle kokubhengeza ngokusemthethweni imfazwe evela kwiBhunga. Injongo ephambili yesiSenzeko yayikukuphinda kubekwe igunya lombutho wombutho wemfazwe nokuthintela oomongameli bexesha elizayo ekubangeleni imikhosi exhobileyo ngaphandle kwemvume yengqungquthela.

  • Isivumelwano: Umongameli kufuneka adibane neKhomishini “kuyo yonke imeko" phambi kokuba afake imikhosi kwimfazwe okanye iimeko apho kuboniswa ukubandakanyeka kwemfazwe.
  • UPresidenti kufuneka anikezele ingxelo ebhaliweyo kwiNgqungquthela kwisithuba seeyure ezingama-48 zokuzisa amandla, ukuchaza iimeko, igunya, kunye nomlinganiselo oqikelelwayo wolwalamano kunye nexesha lokuganana.
  • [[UMTL:0] I-afcoact: ngaphandle kokuba iBhunga libhengeza imfazwe okanye ligunyazisa isenzo, imikhosi kufuneka isuswe kwintsuku ezingama-60, nolwandiso lweentsuku ezingama-30 lokhuseleko lwamandla.
  • [[NTLA] Isisombululo sangoku: ekuqaleni, iBhunga lingafuna ukurhoxa kwemikhosi ngokukhawulezileyo ngokugqithisa isigqibo esihambelanayo, nangona eli lungiselelo laphulw'umvuzo ngesigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo ngo1998 S v. Chachaha, eyayikholelwa ukuba iwiswe ngumthetho we-veto ayisetyenziswanga.

Esi sigqibo saphendulwa ngokungqalileyo ngabaphangi abaphezulu, kodwa ukusebenza kwalo ngomgaqo-siseko kuye kwathandatyuzwa ukususela ekubhalweni kwalo. Abahlalutyi bembali besuka baqala ukugxeka.

Amacebiso Aphambili Emfazwe

Iingcinga zokuqala zidla ngokujonga iSigqibo seWar Desolution njengengqungquthela egqwethekileyo kulwabelo lwantlandlolo lwamagunya emfazwe. Iinkcubeko zazo ziwela kwimimandla emininzi engundoqo.

Ukuxhotyiswa kwamandla oMphathi-mikhosi oMkhosi

Izaziso zoqobo zithi inkcazo yesigqibo nexesha lokurhoxa ngokungekho mthethweni ziphazamisana nendima kamongameli njengeNkulumbuso-iNkulumbuso. Imfuneko yokuba imikhosi irhoxiswe emva kweentsuku ezingama-60 .Nkqutyana engenangxaki ivumela ukuqukwa ngokusemthethweni ukuba iBhunga liqhubeke linika iKhomishini iBhunga i-Angrhente i-asethi yenze i-arhente. Oku, kuphikisana nokuqonda kwasekuqaleni ukuba umongameli ulawula umkhosi uyaqhubeka nokulawula umkhosi wakuba umkhosi uququze uquke ulawulo lwezo mikhosi. Njengoko iJastilia ephawulwe kwisivumelwano sakhe ngokungenasizathu kwimiqatha. [iiiiiindlela ehamba ngayo.[FLTLD][FLD1] [2001], umyaleli-Chindiwe-ok

IGawulayo Yemfazwe kaClaus Nentsingiselo ye “Imfazwe”

Izaziso zoqobo zikwaphikisa ukuchazwa okucacileyo kweResolution “kobutshaba.". Isigqibo sibangela ukuba kubekho ukudibana okuncinane okanye ukulwa okufutshane. Umzekelo, xa imikhosi iveliswa kwi-"inguqu apho imfazwe ithe yanda ngokucacileyo ziimeko.” Izaziso zendalo ziphikisa ukuba iSivumelo soMgaqo-siseko u-Gawula-siseko uCelallyose sasingacelelwanga ukugquma okanye ukungquzulana okufutshane. UMadisonta, umzekelo, umahluko phakathi kwemfazwe egqibeleleyo (isindululo esigqibeleleyo) kunye “nemfazwe egqibeleleyo” kunye nemfazwe (engagqibekanga). Abanye abakholelwa kwimbali yokuqala bagcina ukuba uMgaqo-siseko uvumela umongameli ukuba aphendule ngequbukhali okanye imicimbi yemikhosi ngaphandle kokuvunyelwa yimeko epheleleyo, njengoko ezi zenzo zingakongalinganiyo yonke imfazwe. Ukurhoxisana okunzima, ukuxabana okunga okunga kuthethwayo, ukurhoxiswa kwetyala ngenxa yengxelo enyaniso, yexesha lokuqala lokuqala lokuqala lokuqala lokuqala.

Ukwahlukana Kwamagunya Nokuziphendulela Kwezobupolitika

Enye ingcali yenzululwazi yantlandlolo igxininisa ekuphazamiseni kwesigqibo sokwahlula amagunya ngomGaqo-siseko. Abaqulunqi baphikisa ngelithi, abaseki beBhunga badala inkqubo apho isebe ngalinye liza kuba namandla ahlukeneyo neembopheleleko, kwaye isisombululo sidida le migaqo ngokunika iKhomishini yesibini kwimiba yeNkqutyana. Oku kwenza ukuba iCuartation ingakwazi ukuphendula ityala lezopolitiko. Xa iBhunga linyanzeleka ukuba livote nokuba livume okanye lingayifuni na imvume yomkhosi, amalungu eKhomishini anokuphepha ityala le sigqibo sokuqala, ngoxa umongameli ebeke ityala ingxabano. Abalawuli bakhetha inkqubo apho umongameli amele afike kuyo ukuze agunyaze kugunyazwe i-Rhulumente, kunokuba abe ngumGaqo-siseko, kunokuba avumelene nomthetho wokumiselwa kweBhunga-ngqungquthela, kunokuba adelwanelwane.

IMithetho eXhasayo kunye neziXhobo

Abahlalutyi bokuqala bofundo lwamagunya emfazwe − kuquka abaphengululi abaxhasa iNjongo yeWar Powers −argue ukuba intsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko ayicacanga njengokuba ababhali besithi. Babonisa ukuba abaqali ngokwabo abachasani ngemisebenzi yamandla olawulo oluphezulu, kwaye uqheliso lwembali ukususela ekusungulweni komsebenzi wemfazwe luye lwawandisa ngokuqhubekayo igunya lobumongameli. Umzekelo, oomongameli uThomas Jefferson (imfazwe zeBharbary) kunye noJames Polk (ish Mexican-American mfazwe) bobabini babandakanyeka kwimisebenzi yomkhosi ngaphandle kwezivumelwano zolawulo zangaphambili, bemisela amanyathelo okuqala olawulo oluphezulu.

Abaxhasi beSigqibo bakwaphikisa ngokuthi imfazwe yanamhlanje efaniswe kukusetyenziswa ngokukhawuleza, imisebenzi yokugquma, kunye nobugrogrisi behlabathi jikelele . Abaxhasi abasuka kwiimfazwe zenkulungwane ye-18 abaQaphi ababonwayo. Baphikisa ngelithi ukucaciswa kokuqala okungqongqo kokumisela ubuchule bomongameli akuyonto inokwenzeka kwihlabathi apho izisongelo zinokuvela khona ngephanyazo. Oku kukuzixakekisa okusemgangathweni kwingxoxo: abaxhasi bokuqala baxhasa ukuthembeka kumbhalo wesiseko kunye nentsingiselo yembali, ngelixa abachasi babo begxininisa imfuneko eluncedo nemfuneko yokuthatyathwa ngumgaqo-siseko.

INkundla ePhakamileyo iphephe kakhulu ukumisela ngqo ukulawulwa komgaqo-siseko weSigqibo samaGunya emfazwe. I-Crocker v.Reagan [19984] kunye ne-Campbell v. Clinton [2000], iinkundla ezisezantsi zathi kwimicimbi yezopolitiki ayilunganga, ishiya isigqibo kwimo sokungaqiniseki komthetho. Le mithetho ivumela amasebe ezobupolitika ukuba aqhubeke nokhuphiswano lwawo phezu kwamandla emfazwe ngaphandle kokhokelo olucacileyo.

Isigqibo Esiqheliselwayo: Ukusuka Kwimoto Ukuya Kwibhiden

Ukususela ekumisweni kwakhe, akukho mongameli oye wavuma iSigqibo seMpi soMkhosi weSigqibo njengesibotshwa ngomgaqo-siseko. Wonke umongameli wase Gerald Ford ukuya kuJoe Biden uye wagcina iingxelo phantsi kwelungiselelo lokunika ingxelo yesigqibo, kodwa ebesenza njalo “esamkela” kuneso sigqibo, ukugcina izigqibo zabo ezimiselwe umthetho-siseko. Lo mkhwa uguqule esona sinamandla esisixhobo sokukhupha isigqibo (8593) kunye no-20171) ngaphandle kokufuna uvumo lwe-Bhunga olukhoyo.

Izazi ngemvelaphi bezigxeka kakhulu ezi zenzo. Bathi oomongameli, kungakhathaliseki ukuba bangaliphi iqela, baye bayityeshela ngokulandelelana intsingiselo yantlandlolo yomGaqo-siseko ngokuphatha amandla oMyaleli-iNkulumbuso njengekhomishini yokukhangela ukusebenzisa amandla xa bebona ukuba bakulungele. Isigqibo semfazwe, ekuqaleni enzelwe ukukhangela le ndlela yokuziphatha, endaweni yoko siye saba ligqabi lomkhiwanenga abathi oomongameli basebenzise ukuvuma xa beqhubeka besenza into ngaphandle kwethuba. Ngokwembono yantlabalwa, iSigqibo asiphumelelanga ukubuyisela ulungelelwano olusemgqebanweni lwamandla emfazweni, kanye ngenxa yokuba senziwe ngokubhekisele kwiingcamango ezingeyo zezokuqala ngokuphathelele ulawulo oluphezulu.

Iingxoxo Zale Mihla Nekamva Lamagunya Emfazwe

Ingxoxo ngentanda-bulumko yemvelaphi kunye neSigqibo samaGunya emfazwe iyaqhubeka idlala kwiingxoxo zenkqubo yale mihla. Imimandla emibini ebaluleke ngokukhethekileyo kukusetyenziswa komkhosi nxamnye nabadlali abangengomazwe kunye nokuxhomekeka okukhulayo kwiSigunya lokuSebenza ngoMkhosi woMkhosi (AMF).

Ukuhlaselwa Yinqwelo - moya Nokubulawa Kwabantu

I-Obama, Trump, kunye nobaphathi-mikhosi be-Biden bonke baye benza uhlaselo olubanzi kwaye bajolise imisebenzi yokubulala amaqela abanqolobi kumazwe anjengeYemen, Somalia, kunye nePakistan. Le misebenzi isoloko ihla phantsi komnyango we- “imikhosi” njengoko ichazwe yiMvutho-Mvumo wemfazwe, kwaye oomongameli baye basebenzisa i-AUMFs ukusuka ngo-2002 kunye no-2002 ukuthethelela. Abaququququzeli be-AUMFs, ababenzelwe ukulwa imfazwe ethile e-Afghanistan nase-Iraq, baye baphikiswanada ngaphezu kwentsingiselo yabo yokuqala. Oku, baphikisa, umgaqo osemthethweni wokuba iBhunganelo lomthetho kufuneka lugunya ngokungenasiphelo. Abanye abaxhasi bemiqatha baxhasa ukuzinikela kwakhona kwimfazwe yantland yezonganiso, apho nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi nayiphi na indlela efuna ukuvota kwi-Bhunga lomkhosi.

Imigudu Yokwenza Iinguqu

Kwiminyaka yakutshanje, amalungu eBhunga lamalungu omabini aye amisela umthetho wokubuyisela okanye wokuhlaziya iSigqibo seWar Powers. Ezinye izicelo zizama ukomeleza iSigqibo ngokuphelisa amandla kamongameli okuphepha ukuthobela, ngoxa abanye beya kunciphisa umlinganiselo waso wokuvumela uphakamiso lomongameli oluphezulu. Abaphengululi bendalo baye baxhasa imigudu yokubuyisela amagunya emfazwe kwisiseko somgaqo-siseko: ukufuna ugunyaziso lomkhosi olubalulekileyo, ngoxa bevumela umongameli ukuba aphendule kwiimeko ezingxamisekileyo kunye nokuzilawula ngokwakhe. Ubunzima bukukuba bachaze “kwisithoba” kunye“ nokuzinza komthetho osemthethweni" ngendlela eluncedo.

Isiphelo

Intanda-bulumko yoqobo inika ubuchule obunamandla nobusekelwe kwimbali boMkhosi weMpi. Ngokugxininisa kwintsingiselo yantlandlolo yoMgaqo-siseko, iingcali zoqobo zibalaselisa iindlela ezithi ngazo inkqubo yeSigqibo qhaqhaqhazelisa isantya sonyaka wama-60 kunye nemfuno yokufuna uncedo. Isiphumo siso esididadayo: Amandla emfazwe awakhange aphinde ahlazise umlinganiselo womgaqo-siseko owenziwe ngabalawuli-Mphathi-mikhosi. Ngeli xesha linye, abalawuli bokuqala bagxeka ngokunzulu indlela oomongameli abaye basebenzisa ngayo iziphazamiso kwisigqibo sokuhlawula iimfazwe ngaphandle komvumelwano. Isiphumo siso singumthetho esidityaniswe ngokuphikisanayo: Isigqibo semfazwe asikhange sibuyise umlinganiselo womgaqo wolawulo lwakuqala okanye unikeze umsebenzi womsebenzi wale mkhosi wanamhlanje.

Njengokuba iUnited States iqhubeka ijongene nocelomngeni oluntsonkothileyo lokhuseleko . "kusukela kumsebenzi wobugrogrisi behlabathi ukuya kukhuphiswano lwamandla amakhulu", umbuzo wokuba ngubani ogqibayo xa imikhosi yaseMelika ihamba ngendlela yokwenza okubi ihlala ixinana kunanini na ngaphambili. Ukwenziwa komzinzo, nokugxininisa kwayo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko kunye nokusekwa kwendlela, ngokungathandabuzekiyo kuza kuhlala kusekho isiciko semfazwe esinentsingiselo ebanzi, okanye enoba izakuhlala iyingqweqwele yentanda-ntanda-bulumko ekwaya kulinganiswa kuyo iinyaniso zendalo, kunye nokungaphicono okuphela kokwenza uphando lwexesha elizayo nokutolika.