Ukwazisa: Ukusetyenziswa Kwemipu Engafaniyo Nemiphumo Yako

Ukwahlulwa kwemithetho-siseko okanye kwezopolitiko — ukwahlulwa kowiso-mthetho okanye kwemibutho emininzi okanye amaqela ezobupolitika — luphawu oluchaza ulawulo lwedemokhrasi oluninzi lwangoku. Ngoxa ubuninzi buyindawo ebonakalisa impilo yedemokhrasi, ukwahlukana okugqithisileyo kusenokutshabalalisa iziseko zokulawula okuphumelelayo. Xa kungekho qela linye okanye umbutho ozinzileyo unokuthi ulawule abaninzi, iziphumo zibangelwa kukungasebenzi kwasemthethweni, inkqubo ye-tric, kunye nokuncitshiswa kwentembeko yabantu. Ukuqonda indlela le ngxaki echaphazela ngayo inkqubo eqhubekayo kunye nokuzinziwa kolawulo lweziko kuyimfuneko kungekuphela kwezazinzulu zezobupolitika nababhali-mbali kodwa kwanabenzi bemithetho efuna ukuyila amaziko abambelele kwimithetho.

Eli nqaku lihlolisisa oonobangela kunye neempawu zokwahlulwa kwezobupolitika, lilandelela iziphumo zalo kwimiqathango yobomi yemigaqo kawonke-wonke, lize lihlole iziphumo ezibanzi zokuzinziswa kolawulo. Imizobo kwizifundo zomatyala zothelekiso kunye nophando lwakutshanje, ikwachaza iindlela zombutho kunye nezopolitiko ezinokuthi zinciphise ezona ziphumo zomonakalo. Injongo kukunikezela ngentsingiselo ecacileyo, uhlalutyo olusekelwe kubungqina oluhamba ngaphaya kokugwetywa okulula kweenkqubo ezininzi kwaye endaweni yoko bubuze: phantsi kwaziphi iimeko ezithi zibe ziqhelane zendlela, kwaye yintoni enokwenziwa ukubuyisela intsingiselo ngaphandle kokuzimela?

Ukuchaza Ukwahluka Kwezobupolitika: Ngaphezu Konqulo Olulula

Ukuqhekeka kwezobupolitika kubhekisela kwimeko apho igunya lezobupolitika lisasazwa phakathi kwabadlali abaninzi — amaqela, amaqela, okanye abalawuli abazimeleyo — nto leyo ebangela ukuba kube nzima ukwenza imibutho ehlala ihleli, elawulayo. Oku kusasaza kusenokulinganiswa ngokweenkalo eziliqela: inani lamaqela ezobupolitika aphumelelayo kwindlu yowiso - mthetho, umgama weengcamango phakathi kwawo, namalungiselelo amanyathiswa.

Isalathisi soMsebenzi weNkqubo

Izazinzulu zezobupolitika ziqhele ukusebenzisa inani elinesiphumo lamaqela (ENT: 1] isalathiso, esiphuhliswe ngu Markku Laakso kunye neRein Taagepera, ukuqulunqa ulwahlulo. I-ENP ngaphezulu kwe 3.5 isoloko ithathwa njengephezulu, ngelixesha amaxabiso ngaphezulu kwe 5 abonisa uqhekeko olugqithisileyo. Ezinye izibonisi ziquka [[FLT:]] isalathisi sokwahlula-hlula-hlula [] (utyekelo lokuba iimithetho ezibini ezikhethiweyo zezamaqela ahlukeneyo) kunye ne-'uququko-olth lwemiqonga yemibutho elawulayo [ulk]] (umlinganiselo wonyaka kunye nolungeleniso lwezivumelwano).

Oonobangela Abayintloko Bokwahlukana

Ukwahlukana akuveli kwindawo engenamsebenzi.

  • uyilo lwenkqubo ebanzi: umelo lwepropati (PR) olunemiqobo esezantsi ludla ngokuvelisa amaqela amaninzi, ngeli lixa iinkqubo ezingundoqo (umz., udidi lokuqala lokuqala-lokuqala lomva) luqinisa ukhuphiswano.
  • Ukuthatha i-cleaves: Ukunzulu kobuzwe, ulwimi, unqulo, okanye izahlulo zengingqi zisoloko zimephulela kwisixokelelwano seqela, ziphinda-phinda inani labadlali abafanelekileyo.
  • Ukwenziwa kweqela lemibutho yemibhobho: Apho amaqela athanda ubunyani okanye athengwa, aqhekeka lula kwaye aphinde afumane icebo.
  • Iinkqubo zepalamente: iinkqubo zoMongameli zingakhulisa ukwahlukana xa umphathi ophetheyo nendlu yowiso-mthetho elawulwa ngamaqhina awahlukeneyo, nto leyo ekhokelela “kurhulumente owahlukeneyo.”

Ngokomzekelo, inkqubo yokukhetha yakwaSirayeli ivelise iintlawulo ezimacandelwana kakhulu ngokwembali, lo gama imodeli ephumeleleyo yoManyano ifumana yonke imodeli elinganiselweyo phezu kokukhula kwenkxaso yamaqela amathathu. I-Joornal ye-democracy [ iphawula ukuba iingxoxo ezinyulwayo zokuguqula iinguqu zisoloko zibhekiselele ekuphumeni phakathi kommeli nolawulo.

Indlela Ukwahlula - sahluka Ngayo Inkqubo

Ukuqhubekeka komgaqo-nkqubo — amandla okugcina iindlela zexesha elide kumacala ojikelezo — luphawu lokuzinzisa nokuzimela ulawulo. Ukwahlula kusongela ukuqhubeka ngeendlela ezininzi ezidityanisiweyo.

Uluvo lomgaqo-nkqubo olufutshanisiweyo

Xa oorhulumente bebunjwe ngamaqhina abuthathaka anokuwa nangawuphi na umzuzu, abenzi benkqubo baxhotyiswa ukuba bajolise ingqalelo kwiziphumo ezikhawulezileyo, ezibonakalayo kunokuba bajolise kuzaliso lwemali olude. Utshintsho lwemfundo, imisebenzi yesiseko, kunye nokuziqhelanisa kwemozulu kudla ngokufuna izibophelelo ezilishumi-ebude; iinkqubo ezahluliweyo zizama ukunikezela ngozinzo lwemithetho efunekayo ukuze zibone ezo misebenzi. A 202020 uphando kwi- i-Comparatical Political Studies[[

Ukuvuselelwa Ngokuthe rhoqo

Ukwahlulwa kwamaqela kukhokelela ku “ukwenziwa kwemithetho-nkqubo” — umjikelo wokuziko lomthetho nokubuyiselwa njengoko oorhulumente betshintsha. Umzekelo, phakathi kowe-1992 nowama-2020, i-Itali, ilizwe elinolwahluko oluphezulu ngokwembali, elinamava angaphezu kwama-60 oorhulumente. Ngelo xesha, ulungiso lwentlalo-ntle kunye notshintsho olungundoqo lwemisebenzi lwaveliswa kwaza kwathi kwathi shwaka ixeshana, kuncitshiswa ukuthemba nokuthembana kukawonke-wonke. Oku kuguqulwa akuphelelanga e-Itali: imfazwe yama-2010-2011, eyathi yahlala imihla engama-51, ebonisa indlela ukrumpla kungayinqanda ngayo inkqubo yokusebenza.

Ukulalanisa Okunciphisa Ukuphumelela

Kwanaxa umthetho udlula, ukwahlulwa kufuna ulwahlulo olubanzi. Olu lwabiwo ludla ngokuvelisa “imigaqo encinane exhaphakileyo ebangela ukuba amaqabane adibeneyo aneliseke kodwa angakwazi ukucombulula iingxaki ngokungqongqo. Umzekelo, kwizindlu zowiso-mthetho ezingohlukeneyo, utshintsho lwerhafu ludla ngokungathandekiyo ngokukhulula amaqela enzala, kwaye imimiselo yemekobume iyaxutywa ukuze ihlambuluke ukuhlambulula ii-contiations ezahlukahlukeneyo. Isiphumo yinkqubo engo ebanzi kakhulu, edidanisayo, okanye edityaniswe kakhulu, okanye ibonelelwa ngokungafaneleyo izibonelelo [ — into ebizwa ngabaphengululi ngokuba “ipolity."

Ubuchule Bolawulo Obenziwe Ngaphantsi Kokwahlukana: Ukulungelelana Okunobuqhophololo

Uzinzo lolawulo lubandakanya okungaphezulu nje kokungabikho kokuwa kukarhulumente; luquka ukuxelwa kwangaphambili kwamaziko ezobupolitika, ukuphumelela kokunikezelwa kweenkonzo, nokuzinziswa kwezithethe zedemokhrasi. Ukwahlulwa ngokwezigwebo kuyazinciphisa zontathu.

Ulwaphulo-mthetho lobuGcisa

Kwinkqubo enzima yokwahlukana, ukwenza urhulumente kungathatha iinyanga okanye iminyaka. Emva konyulo lwango-2017 eJamani, iCDu ka-Angela Merkel yayifuna iinyanga ukuze enze umbutho ne-SPD kunye namaqela amancinane, kwaye inkqubo yaphela emva kokuba kudlule umgama omkhulu. Okumangalisa ngakumbi kwaba ngamava eLebanse emva konyaka wama-2019, apho uqhekeko lwemigca yecawa lwavelisa urhulumente ozinzileyo ongakwaziyo ukuhlangabezana nokuwa kwezoqoqosho. Ezi ngxaki azikho ngokushwankathela — ziguqulela kurhwebo lwasemngciphekweni kawonke wonke, uqingqo-mali olubambekayo, nokuhlenga iinkonzo zikawonke wonke.

Iqela Elingaphiliyo Lomthetho Nobuthathaka Obunemilinganiselo Ephakamileyo

Izindlu zowiso-mthetho ezicalucalulweyo zidla ngokufakela uwiso-mthetho wesiseko, kuquka uqingqo-mali kunye nemithetho yokhuseleko. E-United States, ngeli xesha inkqubo eneenxenye ezimbini ingahlulwanga ngokwengqiqo eninzi, i-trapartationalalism ekwiRiphablikian kunye neDemocratic amaqela ahlukeneyo avelisa ulwahlulo olusebenzayo lwesipili esineepartilitistiki. Isiphumo siye saphinda-phindwa urhulumente ukuvala nokusilela uqingqo-mali lwaminyaka lento ngexesha, nto leyo enciphisa uzinzo kunye nokuthembeka kolawulo ngokwe- ngokwe-ofisi yohlalo lwabiwo-mali [[FLT]

Ukuphelelwa Kwentembelo Kuwonke Wonke

Xa abemi bebona amagosa abo anyuliweyo evalelwe kwingxoxo engapheliyo evelisa iziphumo ezimbalwa ezibonakalayo, ukuthemba amaziko edemokhrasi kuyawohloka. Ugcino-lwazi olude oluvela kuvavanyo lwemilinganiselo yokuziphatha yehlabathi lubonisa ukuba amazwe anezahlulo eziphezulu (umz., Italy, umasipala wasePoland, eBelgium) aye aphelelwa ngamandla ekholosekile kwipalamente ngaphaya kweminyaka emibini edlulileyo xa kuthelekiswa neenkqubo ezingembini. Oku kukhukuliseka kudala umjikelezo onzima: ukuphelelwa kwentembelo kukhuthaza uvotilo oluphambili ekuxhaseni amaqela alwayo, aqhubekekiswe ekudityani kwemithetho yowiso.

Imbono Ethelekisayo: Ukwahlukahlukana Emhlabeni Wonke

Ukuhlolisisa amatyala akwidemokhrasi kubonisa ukuba imiphumo yawo ixhomekeke kakhulu kwimeko yebutho nezithethe zezobupolitika.

Ukwahlulwa Okuphezulu, Uzinzo oluphakathi: Imodeli yeNordic

I-Sweden, i-Norway, neDenmark ibineenkqubo ezininzi ezilungeleleneyo nezinezahluka-hluko eziphezulu, kodwa zihlala zikwindawo phakathi kwamazwe azinzileyo nazihlala kakuhle. Indlela eziya kuhlala ngayo impumelelo kwimigaqo eqinileyo yolawulo: ubumi boorhulumente baqhelekile kwaye banokunyamezela , izivumelwano ezihlangeneyo zineenkcukacha kwaye ziyahlonelwa, kwaye ingcaphephe yenkcaso imigaqo elawula ukuguquka kombutho. Ngaphezu koko, iinkqubo zamaqela kula mazwe zilungelelaniswe ngokucacileyo, ngokucacileyo okulula. Ucamba-cango olucacileyo apha abenzi ukuthembana nokuthe kratya okuthe kratya okuthe kratya okuphezulu ngenxa yokuba ukuthemba kunye nokuxelwa kwe-proculvelse.

Ukwahlulwa Kwendlela: Ityala LeItali NamaSirayeli

I-Itali i- “Republic yoLutsha” (1948-1992) yaphawulwa ngokuqhekeka okugqithisileyo ngaphantsi komelo olulungelelanisiweyo, nomlinganiselo wonyaka ongaphantsi komnye. Ukwenziwa komthetho kwadume kakubi ngokucotha, kwaye amatyala kawonke-wonke aqatshelwe ngokusetyenziswa koorhulumente abambiseneyo njengoko bephepha ukhetho olunzima. Emva kotshintsho lonyuselo kunyaka wama-1990 (ukusuka kwinkqubo exubeneyo), ukwahlulwa kocaphulo, kunye nokulawula okuphucukileyo, nangona unyuko lwakutshanje lwepopulist luye lwawenza lukhuni umfanekiso. IKne, amanani aqhubeka ejongeneembopheleyo esezantsi esuntlukweni (3.25%) kunye nolwahlulo olunzulu loluntu. Iminyaka engama-20191920201, kunye noninzi oluzinzileyo olukhoyo.

Ukudityaniswa kweenkqubo zoMongameli: IBrazil neUnited States

I-Brazil isebenza phantsi kwenkqubo yobumongameli eneziqendu ezidibeneyo zendlu yowiso-mthetho. UMongameli Jair Bolsanoro wazama ukudlulisa umthetho ngaphandle kokuthenga inkxaso ngoncedo, umkhwa owaziwayo njengo "umbutho wobumongameli bobumongameli." Le nkqubo ivumela ulawulo kodwa ngendleko yorhwaphilizo kunye nenkqubo. EUnited States, ukwanda kwemihlathi phakathi kwamaqela amabini amakhulu kuxelezekelelwe: ukunyuka kweNdluvo yeNjongo yeNjongo yeNdlukwano Caucus kunye nephiko elihamba phambili kuthetha ukuba izinto ezinkulu zahlulwa ngaphakathi, ukwenza ucaluko oluye lwakhokelela ekucwangciiiiiiii-masti.

Ummandla womgaqo-nkqubo Osona Siseko sinokudityaniswa

Asizizo zonke iindawo ezichaphazelekayo ngokulinganayo. Ucaphulo locandeko lunzima kwiindawo ezifuna ixesha elide lolundi, inkxaso exhasweyo, kunye nesivumelwano esinqamlezeneyo.

Umgaqo-nkqubo wezemali nowezoshishino

Oorhulumente abalungelelanisiweyo bayazama ukuzalisekisa inkqubo edityanisiweyo. Uhlahlo-lwabiwo-mali luba ziindawo zokulwa, kwaye iintsilelo zidla ngokunwenwa njengemali ethengwayo yokuvota. Uhlolisiso lwemali ye International Monetary Fund ( IMF Working Paper 2018) yafumanisa ukuba ukwahlulwa kunxulumene namatyala kawonke-wonke wonke aphezulu kunye nokudibana okucothayo ngexesha lengxaki yezoqoqosho. Ukungakwazi kwe-Greece ukuhlaziya ulawulo lwayo lwerhafu phambi konyaka ka-2010 kwaba ngumphumo wokwahlulwano phakathi kwamaqela amabini amakhulu kunye namancinane amaninzi.

Inkqubo Yokusingqongileyo Nemozulu

Isenzo semozulu sifuna imithetho engaguquguqukiyo, ethatha ixesha elide kunye notyalo-mali. Ukwahlulwa kukwenza kube lula ngamaqela enzala ukuthintela irhafu yekharbon okanye amandla avuselelwayo, kwaye oorhulumente abasebenzisanayo basoloko benikezela kwingcinezelo yamacandelo. “Energiendendi,” ngeli thuba linephulo, kuye kwalungiswa ngokuphindaphindiweyo ngenxa yokulalanisa okuhlangeneyo, nto leyo ebangela ukungaqiniseki kwabangeni-mali.

Intlalo Nemfundo

Utshintsho kunye nemfundo egqithisileyo kufuna isivumelwano secandelo elinqamlezayo kwimiba enzima njengexesha lomhlala-phantsi okanye utshintsho lohlelo. Kwizindlu zowiso-mthetho ezahluliweyo, olu tshintsho lurhoxiswa okanye luncitshiswe ngokuphindaphindiweyo. Amava eJapan ebudeni bonyaka ka-1990 abonisa ukuba uqhekeko luyekile ukugcinwa kwebhanki kunye notshintsho lwempesheni ngeminyaka engaphezu kweshumi elinamashumi alishumi, lufak'unegalelo kwi “Iminyaka elishumi yeminyaka ye-Lostt.”

Ubuchule Bokuchaza Imiphumo Engafanelekanga Yokwahlula - hlula

Ngoxa ukwahlukana okuthile kungenakuphepheka kwibutho labantu ezahlukahlukeneyo, imiphumo yako ephazamisayo inokuthomalaliswa ngokuyila iziko, ngokuguqula izinto, nangokwezobupolitika.

Utshintsho lwenkqubo ebanzi

  • Iinkqubo zamalungu adityanisiweyo: Ukuhlanganisa umboniso wokuqala odlulileyo nomelo lolwahlulo lunganciphisa inani lamaqela asebenzayo ngeli lixa ugcino umelo (umz., iJamani, iNew Zealand).
  • Imiqobo enyusiweyo: Ukunyusa umlinganiselo wevoti ongaphantsi wolwahlulo ukusuka kwi 2% ukuya kwi 4% inyanzelisa amaqela amancinane ukudibanisa okanye ukudibanisa, ukunciphisa ulwahlulo. Umlinganiselo we 10% womda ocuthiweyo weqela kodwa ukhupha namazwi acuthekileyo.
  • Izixhobo zokukhetha ezikhethekayo: njengenye indlela yokuvota (AV) ikhuthaza ukwakhiwa komanyano oludibanisayo phambi konyulo nasemva.

Ukuqinisa iziko kunye noomatshini abalawula i-autonomy

Kwanaxa imibutho yezobupolitika ingazinzi, izimele ngamandla — iibhanki ezisembindini, iikhomishini zonyulo, iikhomishini zenkonzo yasekuhlaleni — iyakwazi ukugcina inkqubo iqhubeka. Ukunika izigqibo zobugcisa kwiziqu ezingezo ezinobupartistiki (umz., amabhunga azimeleyo eenkcubeko) kunciphisa impembelelo yokuhamba kwe-hamba kwe-nqanawe. Amazwe afana neChile neKhanada aye asebenzisa le ndlela ukuxhasa ukuzinza kwezoqoqosho nokubakho kwezindlu ezaphukileyo.

Ubuchule bolawulo olufuna inkxaso

  • Izivumelwano zesivumelwano somanyano lweFormal: [izivumelwano ezibhaliweyo ezichaza izibophelelo zenkqubo, iinkqubo zempikiswano, kunye nezicwangciso zokubuyela emva zinciphisa ukungaqiniseki.
  • Iikomiti zentelekelelo: Iikomiti ezimileyo zamaqabane ahlangeneyo zidibana rhoqo ukusombulula ukungavisisani phambi kokuba zikhule, njengoko kusenziwa eNetherlands naseJamani.
  • [[UMTL:0] Iimfuno zokuvota ngokungenayo: ucela uvoti yoninzi ukuqinisekisa urhulumente omtsha — kunokuba ibe sisininzi nje ukwenza omnye — ikhuthaza ukuseka izivumelwano ezibanzi zangaphambili.

Izithethe Zezobupolitika Nengxoxo

Ekugqibeleni, izicwangciso zombutho azinele ngaphandle kwezithethe zezobupolitika ezixabisa ukulalanisa kunye nokulawula ixesha elide. Iinkqubo zemfundo, incoko ephakathi kwezahlukeneyo, kunye nezithethe ze-media ezinika umvuzo wentsebenziswano kunokungquzulana zingaguqula indlela yokuziphatha. Imodeli yeDenmark “yobuPalamente yoBumende-mthetho” ibonisa ukuba xa amaqela evuma igunya lenkcaso kwaye elawula ngezivumelwano ezigunyazisiweyo ze-hoc kunokuba alawule iminqophiso esesikweni, uzinzo lungahlazelelana noqhekeko.

Isiphelo: Ukufumanisa Ingxaki Yokwahlukana

Ukwahlukana kwezobupolitika akulungile ngokwemvelo okanye akulungile. Kungabonisa iingxube-ntlobo ezisempilweni kwaye kukhusele izilangazelelo ezincinane. Noko ke, xa ukwahlukana kungaphezulu komqobo othile — ngokufuthi kulinganiswa ngenani lamaqela asebenzayo angaphezulu kwesihlanu okanye ukungabikho kwemikhosi ye-centripetal — kuqalisa ukuphelisa ukuqhubekeka kwemigaqo kunye nokuzinziswa kolawulo. Iziphumo azikho ezingabonakaliyo: ziquka ukubekwa phambili kwesiseko soqoqosho, uqingqo-mali oluqatyiweyo, ukurhoxisiwe kwemiqathango, ukuhla kwemiqathango, ukuncipha kokuthembana, kwaye kwiimeko ezigqithisileyo, ukupheliswa kwedemokhrasi.

Indlela ephambili ayikho ekususeni uqhekeko kodwa ekulwenzeni. Iinkqubo zolwahlulo, amaziko azimeleyo aqinileyo, ulawulo olungqindilili, kunye nesithethe sokulalanisa zinokunceda konke ukugcina inkqubo isebenza ngaphandle kokuncama. Izazinzulu zezobupolitika kunye nabenzi beenkqubo kufuneka baqhubeke befunda iimeko apho uqhekeko luba luzihambela lula — kunye nemixube ephakathi enokuthi ikwazi ukuqhuba. Kubafundi nabafundisi- ntsapho, ukuqonda olu lungelelwano kubaluleke kakhulu: idemokhrasi kufuneka zombini ubuninzi kunye nokulawulwa, kwaye kufuneke zombini iimdlalelo zolawulo lweziko.

Ekugqibeleni, umbuzo asikokuba inkqubo yezobupolitika iyaqhekeka kusini na, kodwa enoba amaziko ayo, imigaqo nabadlali banokuguqula ukwahlukana kusuke kumthombo wokungasebenzi de kube ngumthombo wokuzinzisa.