INkundla ePhakamileyo yaseUnited States ngokusisiseko ilolonga ukwakhiwa kwenkululeko yabemi baseMerika ngothotho lwezigqibo eziphawulayo ezichaza imida yamalungelo abantu kunye negunya likarhulumente. Le mithetho, ngokufuthi ebangelwa yimilo yentlalo nezobupolitika, imisela imizekelo ehlala ihleli echaphazela zonke iinkalo zobomi baseMelika . Ukusuka kwigumbi lokufundela ukuya kwinkundla yangasese. Eli nqaku lihlolisisa impembelelo enzulu yamatyala amaninzi abalulekileyo eMgangeni yabemi, ukuhlolisisa indlela isigqibo ngasinye esiye sanwela ngayo, sathintelwa okanye sachazwa ngayo inkululeko ebekwe kwimiGaqo-siseko.

Ukuqonda Ukukhululeka Kwabemi

Inkululeko yamakhaya ngamalungelo asisiseko kunye nenkululeko ekhusela abantu kwisenzo sobugqwirha nesobugqwirha. Ngokungafaniyo namalungelo abantu, axhalabele ukukhuselwa kocalulo olusekelwe kumalungu eqela, inkululeko yabemi iyimfuneko kubo bonke abantu kwaye ichazwe ngokuyintloko kwiBhili yamaLungelo kwaye ichazwe ngokuchanekileyo ekulungisweni kwezi ziqinisekiso zomGaqo-siseko wase-U. Le nkululeko iquka inkululeko equka inkululeko yokuthetha, yokushicilela, indibano, unqulo, ilungelo lokuthwala izixhobo, ukukhuselwa nokuxhuzula okungekho ngqiqweni, ilungelo elifanelekileyo lenkqubo, kunye nelungelo lokungabonwa. INkundla ePhakamileyo isebenza njengenkqululo epheleleyo yeziqinisekiso zomthetho, ukuhlahlela inkululeko enyanzelwa uluntu ngokukhuselwa kwazo izilangazelelo zikarhulumente, ukhuseleko lwesizwe nocwangco lwentlalo-ntlalo.

Iinkalo eziphambili zenkululeko yasekuhlaleni ziquka:

  • [[UMTL: 0] Inkululeko yokuthetha nentetho – Ilungelo lokudlulisela iingcamango ngaphandle kohlalutyo lukarhulumente okanye ukuziphindezelela.
  • ekunene kwi-mfihlo – Ilungelo lokwenza izigqibo zobuqu ngomzimba, intsapho, kunye nekhaya ngaphandle komsebenzi wombuso ophazamisayo.
  • [[UMTHETHO: 0] kulungelene nenkqubo efunekayo – Isiqinisekiso setyala elisesikweni, kuquka isaziso kunye nethuba lokuviwa.
  • [ Inkululeko yonqulo[ – Ilungelo lokuqhelisela ukholo lukabani (okanye ukholo) ngaphandle kokunyanzeliswa, okuquka zombini iziqheliso zokuzithandela kunye noKwakheka u-Claus.
  • [[UMTL:0] ekunene ukuphatha iingalo – IsiHlanzeso sesibini samalungelo okugcina nokuphatha imipu, phantsi komthetho ofanelekileyo.

Le nkululeko ayiphelelanga; ngokufuthi ithanda ukuphikiswa ize iphuculwe ngesigqibo seNkundla Ephakamileyo esisabelayo ekupheliseni imilinganiselo yoluntu, inkqubela kwezobugcisa, neengcinezelo zobupolitika.

Ityala Eliphakamileyo Lenkundla

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka mhlawumbi sisigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo ePhakamileyo esinesiphumo senkulungwane yama-20. Le tyala lacel ’ umngeni umahluko wobuhlanga kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke phantsi "kube ngokulinganayo" imfundiso emiselwe Preveby v. Ferguson[ [1866]]. Kuluvo olungangqinelaniyo lwabhalwa yiNtloko yeJaji ePhakathi i-Earl Warrenter, iNkundla yavakalisa ukuba "izinto zemfundo ezipheleleyo ziyalinganayo zilinganayo," ngaloo ndlela yaphula uKhuselo olulinganayo lwe-Genetic Claus lwe-Genetic of the 14795 Deficetection.

Isigqibo sarhoxa kumashumi eminyaka emvumelwano nokurhoxa kocalulo-calulo kwaye salungiselela isiseko esisemthethweni sombutho wamalungelo abantu. Asiko kuphela ukukhulula izikolo ezicalukileyo kodwa kwakhona kwamisela umzekelo wokususa ucalucalulo lobuhlanga kwezinye iindawo zoluntu, njengooduladula, iipaki, neendlu zenkundla. Kodwa, ukuzalisekisa kwajamelana nenkcaso ekrakra, ingakumbi eMzantsi, nto leyo ekhokelela kungceleleko-mqokozo landela amacala afana [[FLT: 0] Cooper v. [[FLT:] [51] [195] [5] kunye kunye ne-'FLT] yezempatho yemfundo, i- Charlottenvn.[FLK] i-Mlenburg Brouthboard yemfundo yezempatho yokwaluvo oluqhelekileyo, kunye nenkqubo yokwaluvo oluqhelekileyo, ukluvo oluqhelekileyo.

Uqhagamshelwano lwangaphandle: [[FLT: 0] Funda isishwankathelo esipheleleyo ku 'Oyez'

UGideon . Wainwright (1963)

Gideon v. Wainwright wamisela ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko lokucebisa abamangalelwa abamangalelwa abagwebi betyala likarhulumente. UClarence Earl Gideon, indoda yaseFlorida etyholwe ngokuqhekeza kwigumbi lenqanawa, wakhatywa igqwetha kuba umthetho karhulumente wanikela icebiso lolwaphulo-mthetho lwekomkhulu kuphela. Wazimela ngokwakhe kwaye wagwetywa. Kwisigqibo sesivumelwano sengqungquthela, iNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela kwilungelo leSithandathu loMbeko lokunika isiluleko ekuthethelweni okulungileyo, kwaye oku kusebenza kumthetho okwinkqubo ye-Gradient Claus.

Umthetho waguqula inkqubo yobulungisa, ifuna ukuba kubekho abakhuseli bakawonke-wonke abanokukhotyokiswa. Esi sigqibo siye saba nempembelelo enkulu kwinkululeko yabemi, ukuqinisekisa ukuba umgaqo "wokulinganisa okusesikweni phantsi komthetho" ungaphezulu kunento elungileyo. Ngaphandle kocelomngeni oluqhubekayo. "Ofana nokuthwaliswa kwetyala elininzi kunye nokungaxhaswa kwemali eninzi kwabakhuseli boluntu."[ Gideon uhlala ulili lwembombo lobulungisa bomthetho.

Uqhagamshelwano lwangaphandle: [[FTL:0] Funda uluvo kwi Cornell Informational Information

Miranda v. Arizona (1966)

[UMOYA v.Arizona, iNkundla Ephakamileyo yathetha nohlobo lokuzincina kwamapolisa. uErnesto Miranda wabanjwa ngenxa yokuqweqwedisa nokudlwengula, yaye emva kweeyure ezimbini zokubuza, watyikitya isindululo esibhaliweyo esithi wayewaqonda amalungelo akhe. Inkundla yagqiba kwelokuba ukhuseleko lweNkundla yesihlanu ekuzikhuseleni ngokuzithethelela ngokwayo. Kufuneka umthetho ufune ukuba kwaziwe ukuba akrokreleze amalungelo abo phambi kokuncinwa kwemvume. Ezi "Miranda" ziquka izilumkiso ezikulungileyo zokuhlala buthule, ithe kwicala elisekunene kwigqwetha, nesilumkiso esinokuthi nantoni na isetyenziswe nxamnye nazo.

Isigqibo esijoliswe ekunyuseni ibala lokudlala phakathi komntu ngamnye norhulumente, sithintele ukunyanzeleka kokuvunywa kwezono nokuqinisekisa ukuba abahluzi bamalungelo bayakwazi, bakrelekrele, kwaye bazimisele. [[FLT: 0]] Miranda[ ingumgangatho ophambili wenkqubo yamapolisa, eboniswe kwiinkqubo zemifanekiso eshukumayo nenkqubo kamabonwakude. Kodwa abagxeki baphikisa ukuba umthetho uthintela ukunyanzeliswa, kunye neemeko ezilandelayo ezifana bergnov. Thompkins [20]) ucaciso olubalulekileyo lwendlela yolwaphulo-mthetho (20)) kunye no-mthetho othe xekileyo (20) bathi iimfuneko zokukhuthaza ukuthula ekunene. Noko ke, [FLD: 4,5]

Virginia (1967) enothando

e-v. Virginia yawisa imithetho karhulumente ekwalela umtshato wobuhlanga njengongamiselwanga. Mildred Jeter (umfazi oMnyama) noRichard Loning (indoda emhlophe) batshate eWashington, D.C., baza babuyela eVirginia, apho umtshato wabo wagqalwa njengongekho mthethweni phantsi koMthetho wobuhlanga we-Rhulumente. Bagwetywa unyaka entolongweni, bawushiya urhulumente. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yazijika zonke iinkolelo zabo, ibamba into yokuba uGawulayo lwe-145"Intelligity Programmes inqandal's isithiyalela imiqathango yomtshato esekelwe kwimiqathango yesizwe.

IJaji enkulu u-Earl Warren wabhala ukuba "inkululeko yokutshata, okanye ukungatshati, umntu wolunye uhlanga uhlala nomntu ngamnye kwaye akanako ukugxambuliswa nguRhulumente. Oku kulawula kwachitha imithetho echasene nonyuko kumaphondo ali-16 kwaye kwaqinisekisa umtshato njengelungelo elisisiseko. [ Ulova njengomzekelo obalulekileyo kumatyala alandelayo anxulumene nomtshato owe-xhulumane, ngokukhulu kakhulu bergefell v. Hodges. Isigqibo sikwagxininisa indima yeNkundla yokukhusela i-ISCOMFGULAG.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

[Obergefell v. Hodges esemthethweni emtshatweni ongokwasemgaqweni kwilizwe lonke. Ityala laqinisa iingxaki ezininzi kwizibini ezingokwasemgangathweni eziyamkelwayo nezikwaliwayo iimvume zomtshato okanye ezingazange zibhaqwe ngaphandle kwemitshato yamazwe ahlukeneyo. Kwisigqibo esi-5-4 esibhalwe nguJaji Anthony Kennedy, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yabambelela kwinkundla yokuba ilungelo lokutshata likhuselwe yi-nkululeko engundoqo yi-Unitry Procesme Clace nolone-e osisitshatiweyo abanakungahluthwa kokungalungiyo. Ukongeza, uKhuselo olupheleleyo lokhuseleko luka Claus lungagwebi ngokuqhuba imitshato efanayo.

Uluvo oluninzi lwagxininisa "ukujongwa ngokugqithisileyo kwe-"iintloko-manani e-codec" eseke imithetho yesithethe yomtshato kwaye igqale isidima seentsapho ezinxulumene neentlobano zesini. bergefell[ imela ixesha elichithiweyo le LGBTQ+ + amalungelo, inika uluvo kunye neengenelo kumtshato omnye. Ngoxa isigqibo sihlala sikhuphisana ngezopolitiko kwaye sidala impikiswano engonqulo namalungelo othengi, simi njengente enamandla yenkululeko yamakhaya yeLGBTQ+ American. Ityala eliqalwe kwimizekelo enje [[FLLT:2].[FLT]

Uqhagamshelwano lwangaphandle: SCOTBROGUMLY lomtshato ofanayo-wesondo lobunyani

Oobumba abaLayishwa abaNgenisiweyo

ISithili seTinker .Des Moines Independent School Community (1969)

.T. yaqinisekisa ukuba abafundi aba "waphelisanga amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko enkululeko yokuthetha okanye yokuthetha kwisango lendlu yesikolo. Ityala lavela xa abafundi babenxiba iingalo ezimnyama ukuqhayisa imfazwe yaseVietnam. INkundla Ephakamileyo yathi amagosa esikolo akanakukwazi ukugxeka ukuthetha kwabafundi ngaphandle kokuba oko ngokwezinto eziphathekayo nangoko kuphazamisa imisebenzi yesikolo. Esi sigqibo sandisa ukhuseleko loMmiselo wokuqala wokuHlaziya koluvo lwabantwana kwaye sihlala singumzekelo ongundoqo kubafundi abakwaziyo ukuthetha ngokukhululekileyo.

UTexas . Johnson (1989)

.Texas v. Johnson, iNkundla yathi ukutsha kweflegi kunguntetho yomfuziselo ekhuselwe yiSihlaziyo sokuqala. Isigqibo saphelisa umthetho weTexas othintela ukungcoliswa kweflegi yaseMerika. Ngevoti eyi 5-4, iNkundla yawisa umthetho wokuba urhulumente akanakukwazi ukunqanda intetho kuba ihlazisa okanye impikiswano. Le meko iqinisekisa ukuba inkululeko yabemi inwenwela kwiindlela zokulwa kwemibutho echasayo nevuselelayo.

Umgangatho ophezulu wesibonda esinesiqu senqanawa (unyaka wama1903) kunye nomva wayo

Isigqibo sathi sawachaphazela kakhulu amabhinqa ukuqhama kunye neemfazwe zobupolitika. Noko ke, ngo-2022, iNkundla yamalungelo omgaqo-siseko yokukhupha isisu phantsi kwamalungelo obuqu, sibambe ukuba umfazi angakuphelisa ukukhulelwa kwakhe phambi kokuba angabi nangxaki yombuso. Isigqibo sawachaphazela kakhulu amabhinqa ngokuzilawula ngokusemthethweni nangezopolitiko. Noko ke, ngo-20222, iNkundla yalawula [FLT] kunyaka wonyaka wonyaka ophakathi kombungu ngaphandle kokungenelwa kwezono. [FLT: 4.] Intlangano yamabhinqa yempilo ye-Jacksonson , ibuyisela umthetho wokuqhomfa komthetho wokukhupha. Oku kubonisa ukuba izigqibo zendalo azinamnyakatho, njengoko kwandiswa kakuhle ngexesha.

Imiphumo Eqhubekayo Yezigqibo Zenkundla Ephakamileyo

Izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ziphembelela abantu abangengomalungu aqulethweyo. Ezi zigqibo zidala imizekelo esisigxina emele ilandelwe ziinkundla ezincinci, imisele imimiselo yowiso-mthetho, kwaye ngokufuthi idibanise imibutho ebanzi yentlalo. Iingongoma ezilandelayo zibonisa ukubaluleka okuhlala kuhleli kwala matyala:

  • Ukuveliswa kwemizekelo esemthethweni – Izigqibo ezifana [ Mira kunye Gideon[ imisela imithetho ecacileyo elawula ihambo yamapolisa kunye neenkqubo zolwaphulo-mthetho, yenza isiseko senkqubo efunekayo.
  • Isivumelwano somthetho kunye nenkqubo -iingqungquthela kunye neendlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente zisoloko ziphendula kwizigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ngokumisela imithetho emitsha evumela, enweba, okanye emisela umlinganiselo wesigqibo. Umzekelo, uMthetho wamaLungelo oMbindi we-1964 wakhuthazwa ngokwenxalenye yimithetho yeNkundla edebeseko.
  • Uluvo lukawonke-wonke kunye nezithethe zoluntu – Ngexesha iNkundla ingasoloko ikhokela uluvo lukawonke-wonke, izigqibo ezifana Brown[ kunye [FLT] ne[FLT]-OGene"fekta incede ukuguqula isimo sengqondo sobudlelane nothatho oluphezulu.
  • [[[FLT: 0] Izenzo zokhuselo kunye nokugada ityala – imithetho yophawu inika amaqela esizwe izixhobo zomthetho zokuvavanya imithetho nezenzo ezingekho bulungisa. INaACP Esemthethweni UGcibo-mthetho, i-ACLU, kunye neLambda esemthethweni ifumene wonke umkhondo weNkundla ePhakamileyo ukukhuthaza inkululeko yasekuhlaleni.

Ucelomngeni Olulandelayo Lokukhululwa Kwabemi

Phezu kwayo nje inkqubela efunyenwe ngamatyala aphawula izinto, inkululeko yoluntu eUnited States ijongene nezisongelo ezizingisileyo nezizinzileyo. Imingeni yale mihla ivela kutshintsho lobugcisa, inkxalabo yokhuseleko lwesizwe, kunye nokuhlahlela koluntu.

  • Uphando lomthetho kunye nemfihlo yamanani - Oonobumba abafana Karplate v. United States (208) ithetha ukuba ngaba ukunyanzelisa komthetho kungayifumana i-data yendawo yeselfowuni ngaphandle kwemvume. Inkundla yagqiba ukuba umntu ugcine ulindele ukuba amfihlo okufanelekileyo kuyo yonke intshukumo zabo zomzimba, ifuna isiqinisekiso sogcino-lwazi olunjalo. Kodwa impikiswano iyaqhubeka ngolwazi olusebusweni, i-drone, kunye nokuqokelelwa kwemiboniso-minwe.
  • Inkululeko yokuthetha ngexesha lamanani- imigangatho yezentlalo- media ifinyeze imigca phakathi kwe-foculture yabucala ne-ofele. Inkundla ixakeke nokuba imithetho karhulumente ingalawula amaqonga amaqonga amaqondo ([[[FLT: 2]]]] Moody v. Netchoice, 2024) kwaye nokuba amagosa kawonke-wonke angavala abagxeki abachazi boluhlu lwemibaliso ([[FTLT: 4)] Lindke v. Freed[[FLT:], 2024]). Ezi meko zivavanya imida yokuzinzisa ukhuseleko oluqala lweziphetho lweziphelo-menteeting kwinkulungwane ye-21.
  • Inkululeko yonqulo kunye nemithetho echasene nocalucalulo - Iimpikiswano phakathi kwenkululeko yonqulo ne LGBTQ+ amalungelo zifikelele iNkundla kwiimeko ezifana Amacateints-f. Colorado Commission Rights Commission [2017]) kunye [[FLT:]] [303] I-LLC v.INkundla imele kunye nabavukeli bonqulo abangafuniyo ukuchaza okulungileyo okanye iinkonzo zemitshato exekileyo, ukuphakamisa imibuzo malunga nomgangatho wemithetho kawonke-wonke.
  • [[FLT: 0]] Inzala yamalungelo epost amaDobs[FLT]] – Emva kokubhukuqa kwe [[FLT:]] Roe[[[FLT:]], ukususwa komjelo wokukhupha isisu kunye nemiqathango yemiqathango yesizwe ibangele umsebenzi wesicangca, kunye namanye amazwe amisela kufutshane-amanqaku onke. Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekunyuseni kohambo lwangaphakathi, ukukhupha isisu (acces to mousestole), kunye nonyango lwexesha likaxakeka. Isigqibo seNkubonelo siyaqhubeka kwi [[FLD:6]vv.
  • ityala lomthetho kunye ne-politiki – Ukufa kukaGeorge Floyd noBrenna Taylor kwabangela ukuqhankqalaza kwelizwe lonke nokusetyenziswa ngokutsha kobuchule bamapolisa. Ngoxa iNkundla ingakhuphanga mithetho ebanzi kwimfaneleko yokukhusela ukukhusela okanye amandla agqithisileyo, iye yathetha imibandela efana nophando kunye nokunqanda imibhalo yangaphambili. Uxinezeleko phakathi kokhuseleko lukawonke-wonke kunye noMphetho-ntla-ntla-ntla-ntlane luhlala lukho nzulu.

Ezi ngxaki zikhoyo ngelo xesha zibethelela ukuba inkululeko yasekuhlaleni ayikhuselekanga ngokusisigxina.

Isiphelo

Amatyala eNkundla ePhakamileyo eLand ajike ngokungacimekiyo alawula inkululeko yabemi baseMelika, andisa ukhuseleko lwentetho, inkqubela efunekayo, kunye nokulingana. Ukusuka Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo[ ukuya ku [iiNkundla] yoLobergfell v. , ezi zigqibo zibonakalisa amandla oMgaqo-siseko wokukhula, kunye nendima yeNkundla yamalungelo amancinci athenwayo. Kanti iNkundla efanayo iyakwazi ukunikezela ngenkululeko, njengoko [[FLT] 4.[FLD:5] [iiiii] [iiiiiiiindlela] ibonakalisa unxibelelwano oluqhubekayo phakathi kwe-judia, amasebe anyuliweyo, nokuqinisekisa iimfanelo zoluntu, ukukhuselwa nokukhuselwa kwemeko.