Ingcamango yokuhlola okugwebayo lisiseko senkqubo yomthetho waseMerika. Inika igcisa igunya lokuvavanya ubulunga bomGaqo-siseko wezenzo zowiso-mthetho nezolawulo, ingasebenzi kwezo zingquzulana noMgaqo-siseko. Le nkqubo ibalulekile ekulondolozeni umthetho, igcine ukwahlulwa kwamagunya, nokukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye nxamnye norhulumente ngokuxhatshazwa. Ngaphandle kohlalutyo lwezomthetho, umGaqo-siseko unokuba luxwebhu nje oluyila, iziqinisekiso zawo ezinxulumene neemfuno ezinkulu zezobupolitika. Endaweni yoko, ijudiary isebenza njengomphathi opheleleyo wemithetho yesizwe, iqinisekisa ukuba umthetho ngamnye nemigaqo ihambelana nemigaqo equluliweyo. Eli nqaku lihlola imvelaphi, inkqubo, umgangatho, imiqobo, ucelomngeni, kunye nokuhlalutya okuzayo kwezomthetho yezomthetho eUnited States.

Ukuqonda Impinda Yomgwebo

Uhlolo lwenkundla lugunya lokuhlola inkundla, ukuba kuyimfuneko, ukusetyenziswa kwemithetho engenanto okanye izenzo zolawulo ezichasene nomGaqo-siseko. Lusebenza njengohlolo kumasebe owiso-mthetho kunye namagunya aphetheyo, luwathintela ekuwagqitheni amandla awo adweliswe okanye ekuchaseni amalungelo asisiseko. EUnited States, eli gunya lithe laziwa kakhulu kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, kodwa likwasetyenziswa ziinkundla ezisezantsi zikarhulumente kunye neenkundla zikarhulumente xa kutolikwa umgaqo wawo. Imfundiso isekelwe kumgaqo wokuba uMgaqo-siseko ungumthetho ophakamileyo welizwe, nokuba nawuphi na umthetho ocekisayo ungenanto. Eli gunya alinikwangachananga nto icacileyo kumbhalo womGaqo-siseko kodwa limiselwe ngokuqinileyo ngokusebenzisa inkqubo nokuqhelisa.

Imvelaphi kunye neSigqibo seMarbury .Madison

Uhlolo lwezomthetho lwangqinwa ngokuphawulekayo kwityala letyala [[FLT: 0] lama-Marbury v. Madison (5.S. 137). Ityala lavela kwisiphithiphithi sezobupolitika emva konyulo lomongameli wekhulu le-1800, xa ulawulo lweziNtlalo zikaJohn Adams lwamisa inani labagwebi boxolo, kuquka uWilliam Mar Marbury. Umlawuli weDemokhrasi-Republican kaThomas wangavumi ukudlulisela ingqweqwele, noMarrioksi ka-Jah Jeffer wakwa-Rhomey weSizwe ka-Rhulumente ka-Rhulumente we-Rhulumente. UJah Marshall, ubhala ityala elingophi naliphi nalelo lweNkuvukela-mthetho, uthetha ukuba uMarbury wayene kwicala elifanelekileyo kwi-ograces (iT) ngokungqingqinwe kwemithetho yeNku.

Isigqibo uMarbury sasetyenziswa kwizithethe zomthetho zoburhulumente zangaphambili namatyala ama-coloni, kodwa yaba yintshukumo eqinileyo. Ingcinga kaMarshall yasekelwa kwindlela ebhaliweyo yomgaqo-siseko: umgaqo-siseko obhaliweyo omisela amandla karhulumente, kwaye iinkundla kufuneka zinyanzelise loo miqathango. Waziwayo, “Iyagxininisa iphondo kunye nomsebenzi wesebe lejaji ukuchaza oko umthetho ukuko." Ityala laseka iNkungalo ePhakamileyo njengesebe likarhulumente elinegunya lokuhlola ubugqeba bomthetho wemeko. Ngokubhekele phambili, bona [[FLT:] uphatho lweprojekthi ye-Mar.[FLD]

Isiseko somGaqo-siseko soHlola Ijaji

Nangona umGaqo-siseko ungawaniki ngokuphandle amandla okuhlola okugweba, kuboniswa ngamalungiselelo amaninzi. Inqaku lesi-6 leSiqendu sika-Supremacy Claus livakalisa umGaqo-siseko ukuba “uMthetho ophakamileyo weLizwe,” ubophelele bonke abagwebi. ICandelo III lisandisa igunya lokulawula “wonke Amatyala, kuMthetho no-Equaty, ngokusuka kulo mGaqo-siseko,” elichaza ukuba iinkundla zimele zichaze umGaqo-siseko ekugqibeni amatyala. Ngaphezu koko, isifungo esiya kubagwebi abamele ukuxhasa umGaqo-siseko sixhasa ngokuqhubekayo umsebenzi wabo wokuwuxhasa nxamnye nemithetho engqumbo engqubanayo. Umthetho onamandla kakhulu wokuzikhusela umthetho owenziwe kuAleverekthe kuMgane. [kutsho kwemiqatha, umangalelwa kwimiqatha, uGatho-siseko, umele uvakalise i-Gastine, u-A.[1978] [kuchaza ngokusetyenziswa yinkqubo epheleleyo, i-E.[19]

Inkqubo Yohlolo Logwebo

Uhlolo lwejaji alukho kwindawo engenanto. Iinkundla eUnited States zilandela inkqubo echazwe kakuhle equka iinkqubo ezininzi zokugcina amasango ukuqinisekisa ukuba ziqwalasela kuphela amatyala afanelekileyo:

  • Ukuma: U-A u-Placttiff kufuneka abe nekonkrithi, ingozi ekhethekileyo enokuthi ilandelwe kumthetho ocetyiweyo kwaye mhlawumbi ibuyiselwe sisigqibo esilungileyo. Oku kuthintela iinkundla ukuba zingakhuphi iimbono zobuxoki okanye zigqibe imibuzo engacacanga.
  • [[UMTL: 0] Ubukhali kunye nokunganyaniseki: Ityala kufuneka libangele impikiswano ekhoyo, ephilayo. Ukubethwa komlomo kuqinisekisa ukuba impikiswano iphuhlisiwe ngokwaneleyo, ngexa intiyo ifuna ukuba impikiswano iqhubekeke yonke impikiswano.
  • Imfundiso Yombuzo ecacileyo: Eminye imiba ithathwa njengengenabulungisa kuba ibophelelekile kumasebe ezobupolitika ngomGaqo-siseko (umz., inkqubo yelinye ilizwe, iinkqubo zokungagqibeleli) okanye ingenayo imigangatho elawulwa ngokusesikweni.
  • IQumrhu leNkxaso: Inqaku III limisela amandla owiso-mthetho kazwelonke ukuba abekwe “iikhasi” kunye“neentlanganiso,” ezithintela iinkundla ukuba zingakhupha imithetho esekelwe kwiimeko ezithelekelelwayo.

Xa ityala lamkelekile, inkundla ifumana iingxoxo ezifutshane kwaye iphulaphule iimpikiswano zomlomo ezivela kumaqela. Abagwebi ngabom ngasese, ngokufuthi baphikisana ngentsingiselo yokuqala yomGaqo-siseko, injongo yabalayishi bawo, kunye nokubaluleka kwemigaqo yeqhinga. Isigqibo sokugqibela sikhutshwa njengoluvo olubhaliweyo, oluquka ukuququzelela nokungavumelani kweembono. Uluvo loninzi lucacisa ingqiqo esemthethweni luze lumisele umzekelo onyanzelekileyo omele ulandelwe ziinkundla ezisezantsi. Le nkqubo iqinisekisa ukuba uhlolo lomthetho lusetyenziswe ngokulumkiso, ngokusemthethweni, nangokuhlonela inkqubo yedemokhrasi.

Amatyala Achaza Impinda Yejaji

Ngaphaya , amatyala amaninzi eNkundla ePhakamileyo alolonga ngokunzulu umgangatho kunye nokusetyenziswa kohlolo logwebo. Ityala ngalinye libonisa indlela iNkundla etolike ngayo imimiselo yomgaqo-siseko ukuphendula imingeni engokwasemthethweni neyoluntu:

  • McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): INkundla yaxhasa ubugqeba beBhanki yesibini yeUnited States, ichaza ukusetyenziswa noKufanelekileyo kukaCelas ukunika amagunya acacileyo eBhunga. Uluvo lweNtloko Marshall lwaqinisekisa ukuba “amandla erhafu abandakanya amandla okutshabalalisa” kwaye loo mazwe akanakuthintela imisebenzi esemthethweni yorhulumente. Eli tyala laqinisa ubukhulu bolawulo kunye nokucaciswa okupheleleyo kwegunya lengqungquthela.
  • uDred Scott v. Sandford (1857): Kwenye yezicelo zohlolo-mthetho ezidume kakubi, iNkundla yathi iNkundla yaseAfrika yayingengobemi baseAfrika kwaye iBhunga lalingenakukuthintela ukusetyenziswa kobukhoboka kwimimandla. Isigqibo sakhula kakhulu uxinezeleko lwamacandelo yaye kamva sapheliswa yiMiphetho eH1,1 kunye neMphetho-14. Ibonisa iziphumo ezimangcwabo xa uphelo lwetyala lusetyenziswa ekungekho sikweni.
  • Lochner v. New York (1905): INkundla yawisa umthetho waseNew York onqumla ababhaki iiyure zokusebenza, ikhupha “imvume yesivumelwano” ethathwe kwi-CS Process Claus. Eli tyala laphawula ixesha lokwenza umsebenzi womthetho owenzelwe ukubeka amalungelo ezoqoqosho kwindawo yolawulo, nto leyo eyakhokelela ekugxekweni okusasazekileyo nasekupheni kwexesha le-New Dec.
  • Korimatsu v. United States (1944): Inkundla yaxhasa ukusetyenziswa kwamaJaphani aseMerika ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi II, isebenzisa “uvavanyo lwembali” kodwa ekugqibeleni isilela ukukhusela amalungelo omntu ngamnye. Isigqibo ngoku sigwetyelwe ngokubanzi njengebala kwingxelo yeNkundla, ebonisa ukuba kwanengxubusho yezomthetho maxa wambi ingasilela ukukhusela inkululeko esekelwe kwisiseko.
  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954): Kwisigqibo somdibaniso, iNkundla yavakalisa ukwahlukana kwesizwe kwizikolo zikawonke-wonke ngokungekho sigqeba, ikhupha i-“endinganisweni kodwa ilingana” imfundiso esuka Phoverson v. Ferguson[FLT] [[FLT]] [18696]. Ityala lixhomekeke kubungqina bonakalisa kwengqondo yengozi ye-Classical Clauslee. Ukufumana iinkcukacha, bona isishwankathelo seprojekthi ye `[FLT] Brown'.[FLT] v ]
  • Roe v. Wade (1973): INkundla yavuma ilungelo lomgaqo-siseko kwi-mfihlo ekhusela isigqibo somfazi sokuqhomfa. Isigqibo sasisekelwe kwi-Seed Procession Claus eMthethweni we-149th Reconsolection kwaye yaseka isakhiwo esincinane sokulawula ukuqhomfa. Ihlala yenye yeezicelo ezicetyiswayo ezithanda ukuxabana zohlalutyo lomthetho.
  • Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) INkundla yathi i- ikholelwa ukuba ukuHlaziya kweshumi elinesine kufuna iimeko zokufumana imvume nokuqaphela imitshato ekwafanayo, iqinisekisa ilungelo elisisiseko lokutshata. Isigqibo sandisa imigaqo yenkululeko nokulingana neLGBTQ, ibonisa indlela uhlolo lwezomthetho oluqhelanisa ngayo ukutshintsha imilinganiselo yesocini.

La matyala abalaselisa amandla kunye nobungozi bokuhlola ikomiti. INkundla ingakhusela amalungelo asisiseko nokulungisa ukungalungisi kwemithetho, kodwa kwakhona ingenza impazamo xa iwuqonda kakubi umGaqo-siseko okanye ibambezela kakhulu abadlali borhulumente.

Ukubaluleka Kokuzihlolisisa Ngeejaji

Uhlolo lwejaji lusebenza imisebenzi emininzi ebalulekileyo kwinkqubo yomgaqo-siseko waseMerika. Ukubaluleka kwalo kunokulungiselelwa malunga neendima ezine ezingundoqo:

  • Ukhuseleko lwamalungelo ngamanye: Ngokungawusebenzisi imithetho echasene neBhili yamaLungelo nezinye iziqinisekiso zomGaqo-siseko, uhlolo lokugweba lusebenza njengekhusi kubantu abambalwa nabangathandwayo nxamnye nobuzwilakhe boninzi. Iqinisekisa ukuba kwanemithetho emiselwe ngedemokhrasi ayinakuphazamisana nenkululeko engundoqo.
  • Unyanzeliso lweeNkcukacha kunye noManyano: Le nkqubo yamagunya ahlukeneyo ayiphelelanga ngaphandle kwelungiselelo elinokulawula imida yesebe ngalinye. Uhlolo lwejaji luthintela iCongress ekugqitheni amagunya ayo adwelisiweyo, luthintele umongameli ekugqitheni kwegunya elilawulayo, kwaye luqinisekisa ukuba omabini amasebe ahambelana neenkqubo zomgaqo-siseko.
  • Ukwenziwa kweNkundla ePhakamileyo yokuThandela: izigqibo zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ekutolikeni komgaqo-siseko zimisela ukujongwa kwamehlo, okukhokela iinkundla ezisezantsi, abamisi-mthetho, kunye nabemi. Oku kukhuthaza ukungaguquguquki, ukuxelwa kwangaphambili, nokuzinza kumthetho, kuvumela abantu ukuba baqonde amalungelo abo omgaqo-siseko neemfuno.
  • ILegitacy kunye nokuthemba uluntu: Xa iNkundla iqhelisela uhlolo lokugweba ngendlela esekelwe kumgaqo, iqiqa, iqinisa umthetho kunye nokuthembana kwabantu kwijaji. Ingqiqo yokuba imida yemithetho-siseko inyanzeliswa ngumququzeli ozimeleyo wobugqeba iqinisa ukufaneleka jikelele kwenkqubo yezobupolitika.

UJohn Marshall owaziwayo wentetho ku uMarbury ukuba “umthetho owenyanyekayo kumgaqo-siseko uphuthile” uthatha intsingiselo yokuba kutheni uhlolo lwetyala: unika inkqubo yokuba urhulumente abeke ityala kumthetho ophezulu welizwe. Lo mkhwa uxeliswe ngamanye amazwe amaninzi, anjengeJamani, iIndiya, kunye noMzantsi Afrika, amisele iinkundla zomgaqo-siseko ezinamandla afanayo.

Ukugxekwa Nocelomngeni

Nangona ibalulekile indima yayo, uhlolo lwetyala lusoloko lujongene nogxeko olubalulekileyo kunye nocelomngeni. Le ngxaki ibalaselisa uxinezeleko phakathi kwamandla ogwebo norhulumente wedemokhrasi:

  • Inkcazo-Majoritarian Humpty: Ngenxa yokuba abagwebi besizwe abanyulwanga kwaye basebenzisa imithetho yobomi, amandla okubetha imithetho yedemokhrasi emiselwe ngokuphakamisa imibuzo emalunga nokusemthethweni. Abahlalutyi abanjengoAlexander Bickel baphikisa ngelithi uhlolo lwezomthetho “liqumrhu lokulawula" kwidemokhrasi. Abameli baphendula ngokuthi umGaqo-siseko ngokwawo uxwebhu lwedemokhrasi othe ncam yawo kufuneka ukhuselwe kwiintloko.
  • I-Acticial Activil vs. I-Divictt yezaphuli-mthetho: Abanye batyhola iinkundla “zomthetho” xa bebetha imithetho ngonyamezelo, ngoxa abanye begxeka“inkundla ezijongene namasebe ezobupolitika naxa kujongwa ukuphulwa kwamalungelo abantu. Ingxoxo isoloko ibekwa ityala ngokwengqiqo, ngezamanani nanganikezeliyo zombini ngokubhenela kwizenzo zobugxwayiba okanye imilinganiselo exhomekeke kwisiphumo abasivumelayo. Imizekelo ephawulekayo iquka i-Lochner (incomo yexesha lezemali) kunye neNkundla ye-Warren (ivoism for Resociousment for for for for gestion).
  • Uxinzelelo oluthe ngqo kunye noluvo lukawonke-wonke: Nangona ijaji yenzelwe ukuba izimele, abagwebi abakhuselekanga kwingcinezelo yezobupolitika, uphando lolawulo, okanye imvakalelo kawonke-wonke. Kumatyala ahlukene kakhulu, iNkundla isenokumisela imithetho yayo ukuze iphephe ukuphazanyiswa okanye ukulondoloza ikomkhulu layo. Inkqubo yokutyunjwa iye yanda ngokwanda, ngokuqinisekisa iimfazwe ezibonisa ukwahlukana okunzulu kwemiqathango.
  • [[NTL:0] Ukufikelela ngokulinganayo kwiNkundla: uhlolo lwezogwebo lusebenza kuphela xa abantu benokuzisa amatyala. Indleko ephezulu yokuzinzisa, ukufumaneka okulinganiselweyo koncedo olusemthethweni, kunye nemiqobo ekhoyo (ngokufana neemfuno ezimileyo) kuthetha ukuba ulwaphulo-mthetho oluninzi lwemithetho-siseko lungabhangi. Ubutyebi kunye namaqela alungelelanisiweyo anamandla angenakulinganiswa ekusebenziseni iinkundla ukuhambisela phambili iinjongo zabo.
  • I-Origalism vs. UmGaqo-siseko Ophilayo: Ingxoxo ende eqhubekayo echaphazela indlela abagwebi abafanele bayichaze ngayo umGaqo-siseko. I-scripts iphikisa ngelithi umbhalo umele usetyenziswe njengoko uqondwa ngexesha lokumkelwa kwawo. Abaphicothi bemithetho-siseko baphikisa ukuba imigaqo ebanzi yoxwebhu mayijikeleze nebutho labantu. Indlela yokucacisa isigwebo iyazitshintsha ngokusisiseko iziphumo zohlalutyo, ichaphazela yonke into esusela kumalungelo okuphuma emipu ukuya ekuqhosheni.

Ezi ngxaki aziyitshitshisi imfuneko yokuhlolisisa isigwebo, kodwa zigxininisa imfuneko yokuba abagwebi basebenzise amandla abo ngokuthobeka, ukunyaniseka kwengqondo nokuyixabisa ngokunzulu imigaqo - siseko.

Ikamva Lempinda Yogwebo

Njengoko ibutho lamaMerika liqhubeka liguquka, uhlalutyo lwetyala luza kujongana nemida emitsha kunye neempikiswano eziqhubekayo. Imibandela emininzi eqhambukayo isenokulolonga ikamva layo:

  • [[NKQUBO:0] Ubugcisa kunye ne-Amfishini: inkqubela-phambili yobugcisa bemichiza, kuquka ubuntlola obungeyo yamanani, ukusetyenziswa kwe-biometric ukujonga, kunye nokuqokelelwa kogcino-lwazi, kuphakamisa imibuzo yenoveli yomgaqo-siseko phantsi koMphetho-wesine kunye namanye amalungiselelo. IiNkundla ziyakufuna ukusebenzisa imigaqo yemfihlo kunye nenkqubo yobugcisa yamaFramers azinakulindelanga. Iimeko ezifana Carpeent v. United States (20: 8) kunye [FLT:] Ryy] v. . California [20]]
  • Iqela lezobulungisa le-Ofisi: Iqela elinjengeBlack Lives Matter, LGBTQ+ + amalungelo, kunye nokugweba kwezoqoqosho kuza kuqhubeka kuzisa amatyala avavanya ucalucalulo lwenkqubo, ukungalingani kwamapolisa, ukungalingani kwengeniso, kunye nemiqathango yokuvota. Uhlolo lwejaji luzakuba libala elijongene netyala lokuhlasela ukuba zityhalela phambili kwembono kawonke-wonke.
  • [[NTLT: 0] IziHlaliso eziBanzi: Inkqubo esesikweni yokulungisa phantsi kweGama V kunzima, kodwa izicelo zokulungisa ukurhoxiswa kwemithetho ephikisayo (umz., ukuququzelela [[FLT:]2]ROE v. Wade[FLT:]] okanye ukuseka imida yexesha elimiselweyo yamatyala) ngamaxesha athile. Kwanangaphandle kotshintsho, ukutshintsha kwentanda-bulumko ngenxa yezigqibo ezintsha ezitsha. Ukurhoxiswa komsebenzi kungayitshintsha ngokuphawulekayo indawo. Ukurhoxiswa kwe [FL:] v[FLT] v [FLT]
  • UbuOrigeali kunye noMgaqo-siseko Ophilayo Ingxoxo: INkundla yangoku iphezulu inezigwebo ezininzi ezizichaza njengemvelaphi okanye ingcaciso yombhalo. Oku kungakhokelela ekuhlolweni kwakhona kwemizekelo emininzi, ingakumbi leyo ebandakanya inkqubo efunekayo, ukhuseleko olulinganayo, nomlinganiselo wamandla orhulumente. Ingxoxo phakathi kobukho bokuqala kunye nomthetho siseko ophilayo izakuqhubeka iphembelela indlela abagwebi abajonga ngayo ingxubusho yezahlulelo.
  • Imodeli zelizwe lonke: uhlolo lwezomthetho lwahlukile kuqheliselo kwezinye iidemokhrasi, ezinye zazo ezivumela umthetho uphumelele kwizigqibo zenkundla yezomgaqo-siseko (nangona igalelo) okanye zixhomekeke kwiinkundla ezizodwa zomgaqo-siseko (iJamani, South Africa). Imodeli ye-U.S., kunye nenkqubo yayo yobomi kunye negunya elinamandla lomthetho, iyaphikiswa ngokuqhubekayo kwimiqathango yomgaqo-siseko. Iyakubonwa nokuba ngaba i-U.S.

Ekuqukumbeleni, uhlolo lomthetho lusasoloko luyinkqubo esisiseko yokuphakamisa umGaqo-siseko nokukhusela amalungelo abantu. Intsingiselo yayo yembali, ukusuka kwisigqibo sesibindi Marbury v. Madison ukuya kwimithetho etshintshayo yeminyaka yeenkulungwane zamashumi amabini namashumi amabini anamashumi amabini, yenza ibe ngumxholo obalulekileyo wokuqonda inkqubo esemthethweni yaseMelika. Ingxaki ejongene nencopho ekhoyo. Ukuhlala ihleli kwiziphumo zakutshanje kunye nohlolo lwakutshanje olulandelayo, abenzi bomthetho, kunye nabemi ngokufanayo. Njengoko ilizwe lijongenemibuzo emitsha ngobugcisa, ukulingana, kunye nedemokhrasi, indima yemigano exhonywayo njengomgcini-mthetho oqhubekekayo. Ukuqwalasela intelelo lwalonke olulawulayo. Ukuhlala kusemcinezelelwa kwiziphumo zakutshanje kunye noluvoluvo lwangoku, kuqwalalk'umthetho-Genest. [TSFogne.]