Ingcamango yokuzikhusela ekuzilawuleni kwesizwe isekelwe ngokunzulu kwimbali esemthethweni, isuka kwingcamango yokuba urhulumente olawulayo akanakumangalelwa kwiinkundla zakhe ngaphandle kwemvume yakhe. Lo mgaqo uphengulule indlela amazwe asebenzisana ngayo ngokusemthethweni nangeenkulungwane ezininzi. Ukusukela ngexesha laphakathi iimfundiso zamandla olawulo olupheleleyo ukuya kwimimiselo elungelelanisa isidima sorhulumente nesomntu ngamnye, ukukhusela ulawulo lobungangamela kuhlala kusenye yeendawo ezintsonkothile nezithanda ukuphikisana nomthetho wamazwe ngawawo. Eli nqaku libonisa imvelaphi engokwembali yokhuseleko lobukhosi, indaleko ngomthetho oqhelekileyo neendibano zezizwe ngezizwe, kwaye imbali ekhoyo ebeke umda walo.

Imvelaphi Yamandla Ongamileyo

Imvelaphi yokhuseleko oluphezulu ibuyela kwingcamango yamaxesha aphakathi yokuba ookumkani noosomashishini babengaphezulu komthetho. ENgilani, le mfundiso yamiselwa ngokusemthethweni ngebinzana elithi [[FLT: 0]]rex engeyondawo yokhuseleko oluphezulu [, ithetha "ukumkani akanakwenza okuphosakeleyo. Le ngcamango yayibonisa ukuba ukumkani wayenokukhuseleka emangalweni, kungekhona ngenxa yokuba ukumkani wayengenampazamo ngokobuqu, kodwa ngenxa yokuba umthetho wawungenakunyanzela umlawuli ukuba aphendule kwiinkundla zakhe. Ukhuselo lwaqondwa njengelifa lentloko kunye nesiqu sobugcwaba.

Imfundiso yamaNgesi: [[UMTL: 0]Rex Non Pot Peccare

Umthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi wavelisa ukhuseleko oluphezulu ngokuxuba amasiko omkhosi kunye negunya lobukumkani. Ngexesha laphakathi, ukumkani wayengumthombo wokusesikweni; kwathathwa njengengenangqiqo ukuba ukumkani abenokubizwa phambi kwenkundla awayengamela kuyo. Iimeko zangaphambili ezifana [] iProbibibions del Roy [167] [16] kwaye [FLT] i-Cases of Proclames[ [1611])) yaqinisekisa umgaqo wokuba ukumkani akanakungenyukiswe kwiinkundla zakhe ngaphandle kwemvume. I-Prorivectory of Iburyo (1628) yaye kamva iprojective ayizange isuse oku kwemfezeko kodwa yawufumana ngendlela efana neyo [FTLT] [FFF] indlela yokuyila imigaqo-oct: [FFF] [5] [ith , apho umgaqo-mthetho-ogromedromes, nangona uvumayolone, uvumela ukuba uvume ukuba uvume.

Ngaphandle kweNgilani, iinkqubo zomthetho zamazwekazi zaseYurophu zamkela ukhuseleko oluphezulu phantsi komthetho wamaRoma zikwathetha izinto ezifana [[FLT: 0] iipolesi ze-mibilibus solutus iest (inkosana ayibotshelelwanga yimithetho). EFransi, imfundiso ye i-munité de l’État isuka kwi-monarchy ye-Louis XIV iye kwisithethe solawulo lwase-19century esijonge ityala lomthetho wobucala lokwahlukene. Noko ke, njengexesha lokukhanyiselwa kwe-Clocke ne-Montequieus zaqalisa ukuncila iinkosi eziphekelweyo, iinkobe zamva.

Ukwamkela KwamaMerika Amandulo NoMthetho - melo Weshumi Elinye

Amathanga aseMelika afumana umthetho oqhelekileyo wamaNgesi, kuquka nomgaqo wokuba umlawuli angakwazi ukumangalelwa ngaphandle kwemvume. Emva kokuzimela. Emva, iZibonelelo ZomGaqo-siseko zashiyeka zinokhuseleko olubanzi, kodwa ukudityaniswa komGaqo-siseko kwaphakamisa imibuzo ekhawulezileyo. [ IChosolm v. Georgia [17] [17], iNkuMbundla ePhakathi-U.S. Ephakamileyo yathi ibambelele kwelokuba iQumrhu loMgaqo-siseko uvumela ummi wezongameli wemi wemizomGaqo-siseko ukuba angene welinye iphondo ngaphandle kwemvume karhulumente. Esi sigqibo sabangela ukuba kukhalelwe ulawulo lwesizwe phakathi kwabameli besizwe. Isiphumo sasikushenxiwa nguMlawuli wezwelo-U.[FLD:3] [FT] [95], (95]) urhulumente ophicomthelela urhulumente wolawulo lombuso wolawulo lombuso womthetho womthetho womthetho

ISinyusi seshumi nanye asizange sigunyazise ibhar epheleleyo; kunoko, samisela umGaqo-siseko isiseko sokhuseleko esinokuthi iindlu zowiso-mthetho zikarhulumente zikwazi ukuphelisa inxenye. INkundla ePhakamileyo kamva yandisa ububanzi bayo kwiimeko ezifana . Lo mgca ochazayo wadala imfundiso eqinileyo, enyanzelisayo yokhuselo lwezolawulo eqhubekayo eU.S.S. Umthetho, namhlanje uquka imimiselo elinganiselweyo enjengo1969 kunye noMongameli we-Imminodi.

Ukuphuhliswa Komthetho Oqhelekileyo

Ebudeni benkulungwane ye-19 nasekuqaleni kwama-20, umgaqo wokuzikhusela ngokupheleleyo kwimicimbi yolawulo opheleleyo wawulawula kwiUnited Kingdom naseUnited States. Iinkundla zasoloko zingakufuni ukuthoba iimpahla ngokuchasene nabaphathi bangaphandle okanye amazwe asekuhlaleni ngaphandle kwemvume ecacileyo. Noko ke, njengoko urhwebo lwamazwe ngamazwe lwakhula yaye oorhulumente baqalisa ukuba nenxaxheba kwimisebenzi yezorhwebo, le mfundiso ipheleleyo yaqalisa phantsi kwengcinezelo ekhulayo.

Imfundiso Yokungavisisani Ngokupheleleyo

Kumthetho we-Srake Exchange v. M'Faddon (1812), iJaji eyintloko uJohn Marshall wachaza isiseko sokhuseleko lobulawuli bamanye amazwe e-U.S.: ubukho bomlawuli wolunye uhlanga eU.S. intsimi yemvume, ayilunganga kakuhle. Marshall wabhala ukuba ulawulo lwesizwe phakathi kwenkulungwane yaso siqu lubonke kwaye luphelele, kodwa lungavuma ukurhoxisa igunya lolawulo lolawulo lomntu wangaphandle njengombandela wento ento. Le meko imisele i-[FLT:] ingcamango yokuzikhusela kolawulo oluphezulu [FLT][FON [FON] [FLT] [20] kunye neejoggggs.[20]

Ingcamango yemfundiso epheleleyo yayilula: ukugcina urhulumente wasemzini ebeke ityala kwiinkundla zelinye ilizwe kungangqubana nokulingana nokuzimela kwezikhulu. Kodwa njengoko amashishini karhulumente azimeleyo aphinda-phinda-phinda-phindayo(imigca, iinkampani ze-oyile, iinkampani zenqwelo-moya) amaqela azimeleyo asebenzisana nezi zixhobo azibona engenayo isicombululo xa kuvela impikiswano. Ukungalungisi kokuvumela urhulumente ukuba athengise njengezorhwebo aze afihle ulawulo olufuna utshintsho.

Ukuguquka Kwemfundiso Emiselwe Imida

Ukutshintsha kwaqala ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yama-20 kunye nezigqibo e-Itali naseBelgium, ezahlulwayo phakathi [ku-[FLT: 0] jurei (iizenzo zokulawula) kunye jujusis [iiinkqubo zolawulo] [[FLT]] [iiinkcazo zorhwebo] [[FLT]], ithi ifumana ukhuseleko lwezenzo zolawulo kuphela, hayi ukwenzela imisebenzi yezorhwebo. I-United States yamkela ngokusemthethweni ingcamango ethintelayo kunyaka wama-195 . [FFFF:6] [IRG.S] [Impet:[3], ikhutshwe nguMparts-Act [3], ngokusemthethweni i-Active.[3]

[[UMTL:0] Uqhagamshelwano oluphakathi: [[FT:2] U.S. Isebe leJaji – uLawulo lwaMazwe angaphandle oluPhathileyo UMthetho woMgaqo-nkqubo woMgaqo-nkqubo we-

ILetter yeTate yayingenagunya lomthetho, kodwa yakhokela iinkundla zase-U.S. de iBhunga lamisa ingcamango engqongqo kwi- uMthetho woLawulo oluPhezulu wase-1976 (FSIA). IFSIA yaseka inkqubo ebanzi yokufumana xa amazwe asemzini kunye nezixhobo zawo zikhuselekile kwisuntswana eU.S., kwaye ihlala ingumthetho oyintloko wegunya lokhuseleko lolawulo lwezikhuseli zolawulo lwamazwe angaphandle eUnited States.

Indaleko kuMthetho wezizwe ngezizwe

Ngelixesha iinkqubo zomthetho zasekhaya ziqhubela ekukhuselekeni okungqongqo, umthetho wezizwe ngezizwe wazama ukucacisa umqathango omanyeneyo. IKhomishini yoMthetho wezizwe ngezizwe (ILC) yaqalisa ukusebenza kumxholo okwiminyaka yee 1970, ephumela kwiNdibano yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo kwi Jurisdiction Immunitunity of States kunye neMpawulo Yazo [2004].

INdibano yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo engoMkhosi (2004)

INdibano yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo yamkelwa yiNgqungquthela Jikelele ngomhla ka-2 Disemba 2004 yaza yavulwa ukuze ityikitywe ngomhla we-17 kaJanuwari 2005. Yaqala ukusebenza ngomhla we-10 kuSeptemba 2024, emva kokubekwa kwesixhobo sama-30 sokwandiswa. INdibano idibanisa indlela engqongqo, inika urhulumente ukuba angakwazi ukukhusela imicimbi ebangelwa yintengiso, iisivumelwano zomsebenzi, umonakalo wobuqu okanye impahla, impahla yengqondo, okanye izivumelwano zokwahlula. Ikwamisela imithetho yengcamango ye "statist" kunye nokuphatha impahla yephondo. Ekuqaleni konyaka wama-2025, iNdibano ineeCandelo ezingama-31, kuquka ezona zoqoqosho ezifana neJapan, i-Itali, neFransi. IUnited States ne-United States iye yasayina izivumelwano ze-UBukumkani kodwa ayisayini.

[[FTL:0] uqhagamshelwano olungundoqo: UN Treaty - JurisdictionIan Immunications of States

IiNkcukacha ezithelekisayo: UMthetho waBami ochaseneyo noMthetho oQhelekileyo

Amazwe aseYurophu, ingakumbi iJamani ne-Itali, aye afumana ukhuseleko olungqongqo kangangexesha elide ngezigqibo zomthetho. Inkundla yeQembu leMigaqo-siseko yaseJamani, kwi i-Emover yase-Iran Case (1963), ikholelwa ukuba ukuthintelwa kolawulo lwangaphandle akunakwandiswa ukwenza ujuresis[[FLT]]] . i-Italian's demoth Cassione nayo yasebenzisa ingcamango ethintelayo. EMazandleni, [[FLT:] I-SMGOTIOM Act [197] inikeza imeko yokubambathi i-UK ngaphandle kweemeko ezibaluni ezicaciweyo, kuquka nemisebenzi yezoshishino zezente, kunye ne-UK, kunye neSivume se-Enze i-Europe i-Artic isebenza kwiSivumeno ye-U.

INdibano yaseYurophu kwiSizwe (1972) yayingumzamo wangaphambili wokuvumelanisa imithetho yokhuseleko lombuso eYurophu. Yaqala ukusebenza ngo1976 kwaye ngoku inamaqela asibhozo. INdibano yamkela indlela engqongqo kwaye iquka amalungiselelo antsonkothileyo emigaqo yenkonzo kunye nokugcinwa komgwebo. Noko ke, yathathelwa indawo kakhulu yi-UN Convention kunye neyakutshanje [[FLT:] Council yeYurophu Yolwandiso-mthetho othelekelelwayo kwingqungquthela yaseYurophu kwiBhunga-Mthethweno yesizwe ekwisizwe ye-Immony.

Uphuhliso Lwangoku Nezinto Ezikhethekileyo

Namhlanje, ukukhusela ukulawulwa akuphelelanga. Inkoliso yamazwe iyayivuma into evumela amaqela ukuba alwe amaphondo okanye amaqumrhu karhulumente kwimeko ezithile. Umlinganiselo ochanileyo uyahluka ngokwamagunya, kodwa ezi mpawu zilandelayo ziyamkelwa ngokubanzi.

Imisebenzi yentengiso

Owona mqobo ubalulekileyo yimisebenzi yezorhwebo. Phantsi kweNkomfa yeFSIA ne-UN, urhulumente akathintelwanga xa efaka intengiso. IFSIA ichaza umsebenzi worhwebo njengendlela eqhelekileyo yehambo yezorhwebo okanye intengiselwano ethile okanye isenzo sorhwebo. Umbuzo obalulekileyo kukuba ngaba isenzo seqela lobuqu sinye esinokuba senzeke. Umzekelo, intengo yenqwelo-moya ethengweyo yenqwelo-moya irhwebisa amalungelo enqwelo-moya, ngoxa ukuphangwa kwempahla yangaphandle ngexesha lemfazwe kungumphathi. Iinkundla ziqwalasela ukuma komsebenzi, hayi injongo yawo, ukugqiba ukuthintelwa. Oku kubangele ukuba ityala eli likhulu kwimimandla enjenge-omatilom, iinkampani ze-oyile, ii-oyile ze-oyile, kunye nee-akhilo-odola karhulumente.

Ukwaphulwa kwamalungelo abantu kunye ne [[QUTY: 0] Jus Cogens

Enye yeemeko eziphikisana kakhulu ibandakanya ukwaphulwa kwemithetho yendalo ( jus cogens), njengentuthumbo, ukutshatyalaliswa kwesizwe, nobukhoboka. Umbuzo ngukuba ngaba urhulumente unokuthi uyakwazi ukukhusela imicimbi echasene namalungelo abantu asisiseko, nokuba ezo zenzo zazingamandla endalo. Al-Adtani v. uBukumkani obumanyeneyo[FFLT:3] [2001], iNkundla yaseYurophu yamaLungelo elwayo yayisithi i-UK'ss ukugobe ikhohla kwemeko encokweni kwityala lokuthuthumbisa akuzange kungene kungene kuhlanga olu-6 lwe-Europe, ngenxa yokunikwa kwentembeko elungele ukuxhathisa (iiiiiiiiindawo ezifanelekileyo) neyayaziwa kwinkundla yezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe.[Fju4]

Noko ke, ezinye iinkundla zesizwe zithathe imbono eyahlukileyo. Ferni v. Federal Republic yaseJamani (2004), iNkundla yeNkundla yeItali yeCassation yathi iJamani ayinako ukuzithethelela ukhuseleko lolwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe nokunyanzelelwa komsebenzi ngexesha lemfazwe yehlabathi II, ngenxa yokuba ezi zenzo zaphulwa [[FLT:] [[FLT]] [2] izijus cogns[[FLT] [[FLT]]. [iiiIII-I-I-I-Itali yakhokelela kwi-'i-'i-'i-'i-Intellion' yemfazwe' ephakathi kwemfazwe, i-IFLT] ityala phambi kwetyala lezizwe ngezizwe ngezizwe (IC]).[5]

[[UMTL: 0] Uqhagamshelwano olungundoqo: ICJ – Jurisdictionion Immunications zelizwe (IJamani v. Italy)

I-waver Nemvume

Urhulumente angasiphazamisa ngokuphandle okanye ngokucacileyo. I-FSIER yenzeka ngesivumelwano, isivumelwano, okanye isindululo esingathathi nxaxheba. I-applier ingavela xa urhulumente ezithoba kulawulo lwenkundla ngokufaka isiqinisekiso okanye avume ukukhusela ityala. Ngaphantsi kwe-FSIA, ukuthintelwa kwesizwe ngokuvumelana kwi-arbitrate ekhankanyiweyo. Ukhuseleko lwe-arbutrate kwi-asmenti. UMlawuli wenkundla uyakwazi ukuqwalaselwa ngokungqongqo; umxhasi jikelele wezokhuselo kwisivumelwano akayeki ngokuzenzekelayo ekuphumeleni ugwebo olusuka kwisuso. Lo mahluko ophakathi komgangatho we-FSIA, ukunqanda ukukhuselwa nokukhuselwa ekubulaweni. Kwaye ukuba imeko i-octiverality isenokunganqandwa, impahla yayo ingasetyenziswa ngaphandle kokuba isetyenziswa, ngokorhwebo.

Ubunqolobi

EUnited States, emva kohlaselo olungu-9/11, iNgqungquthela yalungisa iFSIA ngo-2016 ulwaphulo-mthetho kunye nempumelelo yokufa kumthetho we-1996 kwaye kamva i-Paralice Againsts of Terrorrisism Act (JASTA) ka-2016. Ezi zigqibo zivumela iisuti nxamnye namazwe angaphandle asekuhlaleni zimiselwe njengemibutho yobugrogrisi yezenzo zobugrogrisi, ukutshutshisa, okanye ukubulala okungaphaya komthetho okwenzeka ngaphandle kwe-U. Ubugrogrisi buyelela kwimiqathango 2016[FLT] [[FLT] [FLD]] [iLD] [3]]. Ezi zivumela ukuba kungene imicimbi eninzi ngaphandle kwe-iran, ngaphandle kwemisebenzi yentengookthetho, ngaphandle kwe-United States.

Iimbambano Neengxaki Zangexesha Elingaphambili

Ukhuseleko olulawulayo lwelizwe asiyomfundiso emileyo; luyaqhubeka luguquka ngenxa yemisebenzi emitsha karhulumente, ulawulo lwehlabathi kunye nemilinganiselo yamalungelo abantu. Iinkalo ezintathu zengxoxo zibalasele.

Ukukhutshwa Kwetyala Elilawulayo

Umahluko worhwebo uye waba sembindini wetyala lolawulo oluphezulu. Xa ilizwe lingagqibekanga kumaqhina, abaxhasi basoloko bemangalelwa kwiinkundla ze-U.S. okanye ze-UK phantsi kwengcamango yokuba amaqhina asebenza ngokurhwebelana. Ikomkhulu le-ML, Ltd. v. Republic yase-Argentina[FLT] [2014:1] (2014, iNQum, iNQumrhu eliPhakamileyo lenkundla ye-U.S. libambelele kwelokuba ukukhuselwa kwe-atrinth kwizivumelwano zayo kubanzi ngokwaneleyo ukuvumela ukufunyanwa kwezinto zayo ehlabathini lonke. Ityala elikhokelela ekukhutshweni kwemali, kodwa likwaqinisekisa ukuba ityala likwityala eliqinileyo phakathi kwezorhwebo. IFASAA, ngoko ke, ifuna isiphumo esithe ngqo kwi-" ngoko, xa i-United States ityala elidityaniswe kwamanye amazwe.

Utshintsho lwemeko

Ukwanda kwamashishini karhulumente (SOE) kuphakamisa imibuzo yokuba ngaba banelungelo kusini na lokukhusela ukhuseleko olunye njengombuso ngokwawo. IFSIA iphatha uSOEs njenge "iinjongo okanye izixhebo" zelizwe lasemzini, kwaye azikhuselekanga ngaphandle kokuba kusetyenziswe igunya elikhethekileyo. Kodwa iNdibano yeZizwe Ezimanyeneyo iyahlula phakathi kwesizwe kunye nezinto ezahlukeneyo ezilungele urhulumente kwaye ezikwaziyo ukuqhubana ne-oyile okanye ukukhokelwa. Intsingiselo ikukuphatha u-SOEs njengabantu abahlukeneyo ngokusemthethweni, ithetha ukuba bafumana ukulondolozelelwa kuphela kwizenzo eziphunyezwa ekusebenziseni igunya elilawulayo. Lo mmandla ucetyiswa kwimibutho yamazwe ngamazwe engqungquthelane ne-oyile ye-oyile, igesi, okanye iinkampani zemigodi.

Ukuziphendulela Kwabesaphuli - mthetho Ehlabathini Lonke

I-Rome Signalte yeNkundla yeNkantolo yezizwe ngezizwe yoMphathi-mthetho (ICC) inikela ukuba isikhundla esisemthethweni njengentloko karhulumente okanye urhulumente asimkhuphi umntu kwimbopheleleko yolwaphulo-mthetho. Oku kuvavanya ngqo ingcamango yesithethe yokuzikhusela ekulweni kwabantu ngokuzimela ulawulo lobuhlanga, ulwaphulo-mthetho nxamnye noluntu, okanye ulwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe. Ukubanjwa kwe-ICC-O. Ukubanjwa koMongameli waseSudan Maral alalal Malbaxir kunye noMongameli waseRashiya uVladimin Pravidius Pravid Phodin kubonisa ukuba ukukhusela komntu owelweyo [[FFLT:1] [ult:1] [umthetho owenzileyo woburhulumente wobuzwelonke] akubaxhasi tyala kwityala lelizwe lonke lonke ilizwe phambi kokuba kuqulwe ulwaphulo-mthetho. I.

[[UMTLL: 0] uqhagamshelwano olungundoqo: [[Umthetho:2] Iqumrhu lolwazi lomthetho loMgaqo--siseko - ulawulo oluPhambili

Isiphelo

Imfundiso yokuzikhusela ekuzibopheleleni isuka kwingcamango yamaxesha aphakathi yokungalungisi kobuthixo nokungalungisi kobukumkani ukuya kumgaqo onzima omele ulungelelanise ukuhlonelwa kolawulo lukarhulumente kunye nemfuno yokusesikweni, ukuphendulelwa kolawulo, kunye norhwebo lwehlabathi lonke. Ingcamango epheleleyo yenkulungwane ye-19 yathathelwa indawo yingcamango engqongqo kwinkulungwane yama-20, kwaye inkulungwane yama-21 iyaqhubeka ivavanya imiqathango yaloo mmiselo. Isivumelwano seZizwe Ezimanyeneyo sokulwa kwe-Immunication solawulo lwamazwe nolawulo lwazo, ngoxa ingekagunyaziswanga yonke indawo, imela ukusetyenziswa kwemiqathango engqongqo yokufikelela kwemiqathango. Kodwa imibuzo emikhulu ishiyekile: Ingaba ithelekele ukuthintelwa kwelo ukulawulwa kwemiqathango yezorhwebo [FL.FL.1]

Njengoko ihlabathi liqhubeka lidibana ngokukhulayo, le mfundiso iza kuqhubeka iguquka. Abaphengululi noogqirha kufuneka bahlale benikel ’ ingqalelo kwingxelo edityanisiweyo phakathi komthetho wesizwe, izivumelwano zezizwe ngezizwe, kunye nomthetho wesithethe sezizwe ngezizwe. Ilishwa lokhuseleko lolawulo lobuzwilakhe lilele kule ngxoxo iqhubekayo phakathi kolongamo lwamazwe nolawulo lwabantu abanomnqweno wokusebenza nolungaguquguqukiyo kumthetho ofuna ukuba basebenze.

[[UMTLL: 0] Uqhagamshelwano olungundoqo: [[FT:2] Encclopædia Britannica – Phezulu I-Immuniy