Isiseko Samandulo Samalungelo Abemi

Umlo osemthethweni wamalungelo abantu eUnited States awuqalanga ngokuhambela kweminyaka yee-1960. Iimvelaphi zawo zibuyela emva kumaxwebhu okusungula iprojekthi nakwiimini zokuqala zeRiphabliki. UmGaqo-siseko, iBhili yamaLungelo, kunye nokuHlaziywa koLawulo oluLawulo emva kweMfazwe yamakhaya kwamisela inkqubo yokuzinza nokulingana, kodwa ukutolikwa kwaloo migaqo yiNkundla ePhakamileyo bekuyinto engaguquguquki. Inkundla ngamaxesha athile iye yaphazamisa inkqubela phambili kwaye ngamanye amaxesha yaqhubela phambili uhlanga phambili, isenza imithetho yalo ibe yindawo enzima yokuqonda ngayo amalungelo abantu.

Isigqibo Esingunodoli Scott (1857)

Amatyala ambalwa kwimbali yaseMelika afana nokuthukwa okanye ukukhutshwa njenge uDred Scott v. Sandford. UDred Scott, indoda elikhoboka, wayehlala nenkosi yakhe kwimimandla ekhululekileyo ngaphambi kokubuyela eMissouri, urhulumente wamakhoboka. Waye emele ukuba ukhululekile, ephikisa ukuba indawo yakhe yokuhlala ekhululekileyo yamenza umntu okhululekileyo. UJajini uRoger Taney, ebhalela inkoliso, wanikela imbono etshabalalisayo. Inkundla yayibambe ukuba nawuphi na umntu waseAfrika, nokuba ungumzalwa nowakho, ukuba umelwe ngummi waseUnited States okanye ukhululekile, akanakuqwalaselwa ngokusondeleyo, kwaye ngoko akanakumanga enkundla yesizwe. UTaneyce wavakalisa ukuba igunya lokungameli kwelizwe, ekhuselwe phantsi kwelizwe. [uTurvelse:] [2]

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Emva kokuphela kwe-Reconstation, uMazantsi amisela uthotho lwemithetho eyaziwa ngokuba yiJim Crow imithetho eyanyanzelisa ucalulo lohlanga. Ngo1892, uHomer Plessy, indoda exubeneyo, wakhwela ngabom inqwelo-mzilo emhlophe kuphela eLouisiana ukucel ’ umngeni iRoffrant Car Act. Ityala lade lafikelela kwiNkundla ePhakamileyo, apho iNkulwano yeNkulwano ekwahlukeneyo yesizwe phantsi kwemfundiso ye-, indoda ehambayo elinganayo. [ IJajili elinorishinings Brown, elibhaliweyo ngabasixhenxe abaninzi, lathi ide labonisa ukuba ide isakhiwo sodwa. UJastivel Marshan Harlan, kwindlu elinamandla, eliduntsko yodwa, elidumileyo, elidumileyo lichaza ukuba i-othe "umele ibala, kwaye alaziyo, i-F.[2] kunye naphakathi sekhulu leminyaka,

IsiHlayiso: Ukusikelwa Kwedinga

Ukuze uqonde amalungelo abantu, kufuneka umntu ajonge kuMphetho-mva weshumi elinesithathu, weshumi elinesine, noweshumi elinesihlanu. Ukuhlaziywa kwagunyaziswa phakathi ko1865 no1870. UMthetho-mpumezo weshumi elinesithathu wabuphelisa ubukhoboka. UMthetho oMkhulu weSigxina waqinisekisa ubuhlanga bobuhlanga, ukhuseleko olulinganayo phantsi komthetho, kunye nenkqubo efunekayo. UMthetho weSindululo seshumi elinesihlanu owenziweyo wakwalela ukukhatywa kwelungelo lokuvota eluhlanganisweni. Oku kuhlenga kumele ukuba kuvezwe umgaqo-siseko omtsha. Kodwa, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawatolika ngokufuthi yawachaza ngokushwa kobuhlanga. [[FLT]] [FLT.[3]]] [53] InguMvukelo weNkuhlwele (187) wagunyaziswe ngu-G.[F.[F.G.5] [ill Requencelkts], inguquancession, inguquluss transform, inguquastl

Inkampani yamalungelo abemi neSixhobo soMgaqo-nkqubo esiPhakathi-phakathi

Phakathi kwinkulungwane yama-20 kwabonakala ukwanda kwezenzo zamalungelo abantu ezathi ngokusisiseko zaguqula umthetho waseMelika. INaACP Legal Defense and Education Fund, phantsi kokhokelo lukaTurfaup Marshall, yalandela iqhinga elingokwasemthethweni elingokwabo ukuchitha inxalenye yocalulo. Imigudu yabo yafikelela kwinqanaba longcelele lweengcebiso zeNkundla ePhakamileyo ekwathiwe kwintliziyo yenkqubo kaJim Crow.

Brown v. ibhodi yemfundo (1954)

Ityala lamalungelo aziwayo esizwe embalini yaseMelika Brown v. Ibhodi yemfundo yaseTopeka. Ityala laququzelela ukuvavanywa kweetyala ezihlanu ezahlukeneyo ezivavanya ukukhetheka kohlanga kwizikolo zikawonke wonke. Kwisigqibo esibhalwe ngamacala ahlukeneyo siSikhulu seJaji Earl Warren, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yarhoxa i-[FLT].[FLT] V.[FLT:] [FLT], ichaza ukuba "amaziko emfundo ahlukeneyo ayalinganangagqibekanga ncam." Inkundla yayixhomekeke kubungqina bezenzululwazi yentlalo ukubonakalisa ukuba ukukhutshwa kwemfaza e-Afrientsyini e-African. Brown.[FFF:5] Brown], yayingalawulwa ngumqondiso osemthethweni; yayingamele ingurhulumente ukuba i-odwa i-ognemondment i-ognelcenced yolueventi

Gayle (1956): Igalelo Elisemthethweni leMontgomemery Bus Boycott

Rosa Parks ’ engavumi ukuyeka isihlalo sakhe soduladula ngoDisemba 1, 1955, waqalisa iMontgomey Bus Boycott. Noko ke, ucelomngeni olusemthethweni olwathi ekugqibeleni lwaphelisa i-bhasi eMontgomery lwalungeyiyo [[FLT: 0] Brown v. kodwa ityala elibizwa ngokuba [[FLT:] Browder v. Gayle. Ixokelelwa nguFred Gray, igqwetha iAf etsha yaseMelika, ityala laziswa ngenxa yamabhinqa amane aye aphathwa kakubi zii-mabhasbes. Iqela lesizwe elinomthetho lalawula ukuba udulathi owe yi-MEngle. Inkundla ephezulu i-Groffse i-deystey (iintshi) kuMnum, u-Novemba-19564) ekwayi-A yinyanga ekwayi-Monter, ingulton ekwayide. Ukumkani uR. Ukumkani uLur.

Virginia (1967): Ilungelo lokutshata

Ngeli xesha [[FLT: 0] ithetha ngeqela lesikolo, ithetha nge-[FLT] i-[FLT project , i- Virginia ithathe imbambano yomtshato wezinhlanga. Ngo-1958, uRichard Long, indoda emhlophe, noMildred Jeter, ibhinqa eliNsundu, elitshatileyo eWashington, D.C., ukujika i-Virginia & # 817; i-Intelligences ye-buni. Emva kokubuyela eVirginia, babanjwa baza babekwa ityala. Umgwebi wabo ubeke isigwebo sabo kwimeko abashiya imo, bangabuyeli iminyaka engama-25. Ityala eliphakamileyo, elathi ekugqibeleni layitshatisa yonke imithetho yomtshato e-Bradia. i-Sping Morrents'errow yabhala i- "imvume, okanye i-mntlunt, i-ognoment, i-F.[f]

Umthetho nocalucalulo lwezengqesho

Umbutho wamalungelo abantu wavelisa izijungqe ezibini ezibalaseleyo zomthetho wesizwe: uMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1964 kunye noMthetho wamaLungelo oMgaqo-nkqubo wamaLungelo ka-1965. Le mithetho yajamelana neengxaki ezikhawulezileyo zomthetho, ifuna iNkundla ePhakamileyo ichaze i-Aprhweqe i-’ izigqibo kweli xesha ziqinisa urhulumente wephondo i’ indima yokuqinisekisa ukulingana emsebenzini, kwizindlu, kunye neendawo zokuhlala zikawonke-wonke.

Intliziyo yaseAtlanta Motel n.

Isihloko II soMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1946 walwalela ucalucalulo kwiindawo zoluntu, ezinjengeehotele, iivenkile zokutyela, kunye namaholo. Umnini weNtloko yase-Atlanta Motel, eyalungiselela umxhasi omhlophe, waphikisa umthetho, ephikisa ukuba iKhomishini iqeqeshiwe ngokuyekelela igunya layo ngokulawula amashishini azimeleyo. [iiiiiiiintloko] eAtlanta Motel v. IUnited States[FLT] [FLT], iNkundla Ephakamileyo iphakamise iSihlomelo II njengenkqubo esemthethweni yeBhunga loMbutho ̱ amandla okulawula ukurhwebelana kwezentengiselwano. Inkundla yabonisa ukuba ucawalucalucalu lwamathelekele ngokudiswa ngumthetho woburhulumente wase-Afrika. Esi sigqibo sagunyazisa umthetho womthetho woburhulumente womthetho womthetho womthetho womthetho woburhulumente womthetho wasekuhlaleni i-19646.

Griggs v. Amandla eNtlangatho Co. (1971: Ukungalingani

[[FLT: 0] ithe yathetha i-Atlanta ithetha ngocalucalulo olugqithisileyo, Griggs v. Iqumrhu Lombuso Wolawulo Co. iphethe uhlobo oluchuliweyo localulo. i-Duke Power Company yafuna abasebenzi abakwizikhundla ezithile ukuze babe novavanyo lwemfundo ephezulu yobulumko. Ezi zimfuno zimfaneleko jikelele wobuntlola waseAfrika. Le nkampani yaphikisa ukuba ayizimiselenga kucalula. Inkundla Ephakamileyo, kwiimbono ezingangqinelani zibhalwe nguMongameli uKarren Burger, yala leyo mpikiswano. Inkundla ikholelwa ukuba imisebenzi ekhoyo [FLD] iphakaliswa yi-'ephakalgrovrease.[F] kodwa isebenzisa i-applieting transggs , kodwa isebenzisa i-off.[F]

ISwann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1971)

Emva Brown v. ibhodi, izikolo ezininzi zalwamkela umanyano. Inkqubo yesikolo iCharlotte-Mecklenburg eNtla Carolina yahlala ingekho mthethweni. Inkundla yesithili yayalela ukuba ibhase njengesixhobo sokufumana umlinganiselo wobuhlanga. ICharlotte- Mecklenburg Broad yemfundo[, iNkuNkundla ephakamileyo yaxhasa ngokudibek'umthetho wokusetyenziswa kwebhazi, imiqathango yebala, nezinye izixhobo zokuchitha iinkqubo zesikolo eziphindiweyo. [FNt] IJajini ibhalwe ukuba "isixhobo esinye phakathi kwezixhobo ezininzi" ukufikelela kwedecuace. Isigqibo salo junums. Isigqibo sikhuthaza ukusetyenziswa kwe-Judiary &1717; ukusetyenziswa kobugropulkt, ngexesha lobugnethothotho lwezo lwezo lwezomthetho-Pt.[5][5]

Ukulwa Kwamalungelo Abemi Namatyala Aguquguqukayo Anamhlanje

Njengoko uhlanga lungenele ekupheleni kweenkulungwane zama-20 nasekuqaleni kwama-21, iNkundla ePhakamileyo ̱ iLawula amalungelo abantu yayeka. Inkundla yaqalisa ukuthandabuza ukuvuma, ukuvota amalungelo, kunye namanye amayeza angenalwazi oluphangaleleyo. Kwangaxeshanye, yandisa ukhuseleko lwamalungelo abantu kwiindawo ezinjenge LGBTQ+ ukulinganisa namalungelo okukhubazeka. Isiphumo singumbandela ontsonkothileyo nowohlulahlulayo umthetho obonisa impikiswano eqhubekayo ngentsingiselo yolingana. Ukuhlola okunzulu kweNkundla i̱ ukuqulundlo, [FLT: 0] [FLT] [FLT:] [FLT]

Umlawuli (2013): Ukuthoba uMthetho wamaLungelo okuBonga

Zimbalwa izigqibo zale mihla eziye zanefuthe elikhawulezileyo emhlabeni njenge iSinyuko seNkundla yeSizwe . UHoder. UMthetho wamaLungelo ka-1965 wawunenkqubo efuna amaphondo athile kunye neendawo ezinembali yocalulo ukuze zifumane imvume karhulumente phambi kokutshintsha imithetho yokuvota. Kwisigqibo esi-5-4, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yawisa phantsi imigaqo ekhoyo, iphikisa ukuba yayisekelwe kugcino-data oluphelelwe lixesha kwaye yaphulwa yimigaqo yesizwe. IJajingi uJohn Roberts wabhala ukuba uMphathi-Proviswa u "waye wasebenza ukulwa kwemiqobo yokuqala yemidalo yokufikelela kwe-bonke" kodwa unikezelo olukhoyo. [umthetho othe waphumayo woncedo lweNtoliki ye-Ecuwan, uthelelana, uk) ugrona ugxulu , uthelela ugqaliselo oluthi lwale uninzi lwemithetho lweNxeba.[Foff4]

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): Umgangatho womtshato

Njengokuba imisele ```Ityala'' elidityanisiweyo v. Virginia imisele ingulo yokuphelisa umtshato wezizwe ezahlukeneyo, well v. Hodges imisele ilungelo lokutshata ngokusemthethweni. Ityala liqulethe iingxaki ezininzi zokumisela ukuvalwa komtshato ophakathi komtshato ophakathi komntu omnye. [u-FLT:1] kwisigqibo sokwahlukana ngokweentlobo-ntlobo-ntlobo zomtshato. [i-5], iNkuNkuNkundla ePhakamileyo yagqiba kwelokuba i-14 yeSinyuko ifuna onke amatyala agunyaziswe kwinkululeko phakathi kwabantu ababini besini esinye naphantsi kokhuseleko olusemthethweni, nokugcinwa ngokusemthethweni kwamanye amazwe. Umthetho uAnly Kenne, ubhala umgaqo wemiqatha, umgangatho ophezulu wemiqobo we-LFognome, umele i-LY.[5] kunye nolwandondondo oluphezulu lomthetho oluthe `G]

Fulton v. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia (2021)

Uxinezeleko phakathi kwenkululeko yonqulo nezokungavumelani kokhuseleko lwasebunqubeni lwafikelela kwintloko kwi kumacala. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia. IsiXeko sasePhiladelphia siyeka ukubhekisela kubantwana ababonwayo kwiiNkonzo zeNtlalo zamaKatolika (CSS) emva kokufumanisa ukuba iCSS ayinakuqinisekisa izibini ezitshatileyo ezifana nezomzali. CSS sud, isithi isixeko i-̱ inyathelo laphula umthetho owe-ous'edenti lisetyenziswa ngenxa yokuba iKlasithelo soMbetho woMda wokuqala. Inkundla ePhakamileyo yalawula ngokuvumayo iCSS, kodwa abagwebi abahlulele kwiimeko eziqhubekayo. [FFoff2] iNt.[4] Ityala elingapheliyo lonqulo limele ukugweba ityala, ityala elingapheliyo, ityala labhala ityala elithe yaphinda i-19, ityala eliphantsi:[Ft:2] i-19, kodwa i-19,

Abafundi beFair Adgistracts n. Harvard (2023): Isiphelo Sesenzo Sokuziqinisa

Kwiminyaka engamashumi amashumi, iNkundla ePhakamileyo yaxhasa ukusetyenziswa okulinganiselweyo kohlanga njengenkalo enye ekuvumeni ekholejini ukukhuthaza iinguqu. Izigqibo zeFair Adjussis v. Harvard[ netyala elingumnye elibandakanya iYunivesithi yase North Carolina, iNkundla imele igqibe ezo ziganeko. [kunye kumthetho othe kratya umgangatho ophezulu] kwisigqibo esingu-3 semfundo ephakamileyo, uninzi lwathi qikelelo lwemibutho lohlanga lwathi ngqungqungquthela yaphula inkqubo yeSikhundla u-lulo. [kungakhangelwanga ziphinde zivuselelwe ukunyulwa kwemithetho ebanzi] [FF]

Ukumanyana Kwamalungelo Abemi

Indaleko yamalungelo oluntu eUnited States asiyonto iphambili yenkqubela. Ityala Eliphezulu liye laba yimpembelelo yokulwa, ukuphumelela kwamaxesha athile. Ngamanye amaxesha iNkundla ePhakamileyo ibingumandla okusesikweni, njengaku [[FLT: 0] Brown v. ibhodi[ kunye [[FLT] kunye [[FLT]] ne [FLT] [umthetho] v.v.v [naye umgangatho] v [naye] nayiphi na imeko ekhoyo ekhoyo ekhoyo ekhoyo.[FLT] izakusetyenziswa yiNkungenelo , iye yabangela ukuba ingakwazi ukulingana, njengoko kusenzeka kusenzeka kumaxesha amaqela amaqela amaqela ahlukeneyo. INkunye amaqela amaqela ahlukeneyo ahlukeneyo, i-[FLT] kunye nenye afumana ukhuseleko olukhoyo kumazwe ahlukeneyo, kodwa afumana ulawulo oluphezulu kumazwe ahlukeneyo, ulawulo oluphezulu, uluntu olukhoyo lungaphikayo.[FLtic .[Fo